Andes orthohantavirus

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Andes orthohantavirus
Andes orthohantavirus Genus Sturcture.png
Virus classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Negarnaviricota
Class: Ellioviricetes
Order: Bunyavirales
Family: Hantaviridae
Genus: Orthohantavirus
Species:
Andes orthohantavirus
Synonyms [1]
  • Andes hantavirus
  • Andes virus

Andes orthohantavirus (ANDV), a species of Orthohantavirus, is a major causative agent of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in South America. [2] It is named for the Andes mountains of Chile and Argentina, where it was first discovered. Originating in the reservoir of rodents, Andes orthohantavirus is easily transmitted to humans who come into contact with infected rodents or their fecal droppings. [2] [3] [4] However, infected rodents do not appear ill, so there is no readily apparent indicator to determine whether the rodent is infected or not. Additionally, Andes orthohantavirus, specifically, is the only hantavirus that can be spread by human to human contact via bodily fluids or long-term contact from one infected individual to a healthy person. [3] [4]

Contents

Discovery

Andes orthohantavirus was first identified when outbreaks of this new infection spread throughout Chile and Argentina. In 1995, it was finally characterized in Argentina on the basis of specimens from a patient who had died from HPS complications, a severe consequence of infection from Andes viruses. [5] As an emerging virus, it is more lethal than that of some of the other hantaviruses having a mortality rate between 40% and 50% in South America. [3] [6] By far, it has been responsible for the most recorded cases of HPS in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay combined [5] [7] and contributes to a large number of kidney failure cases. [7] Although it can be carried by both humans and rodents, Andes orthohantavirus is most commonly found in the Oligoryzomys longicaudatus , a species of pygmy rat native to the Chile-Argentina region, [2] and in other cases, in the Abrothrix longipilis, a long-haired grass mouse. [8]

Classification

Andes orthohantavirus is a species of Hantavirus, a group of enveloped, Negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus, belonging to the family Hantaviridae and genus orthohantavirus. All genera excluding hantavirus are air-borne viruses while the hantavirus is rodent-borne. [9] Transmission of the hantaviruses are through aerosol exposure to rodent bodily fluids. [10] Additionally, Hantaviruses seem to cause no detectable cytopathology in vertebrate cell cultures. [10]

Genome and structure

The spherical virion of the Hantavirus is typically 80-120 nm long and contains the segmented single-stranded genome. [11] The tri-segmented genome includes a S (small), M (medium), and L (large) segment that code for nucleocapsid (N), glycoproteins G1 and G2, and L protein respectively. [9] The S segment of the Andes virus contains 1876 nucleotides in total, while encoding a 547 nucleotide-long N protein. [12] Upon comparison of S and M segments to other variants, the Andes virus was found to form a lineage with viruses such as ESQ H-1/96, CH H-1/96 Bayou, and Black Creek Canal viruses. [12] When expressed, the M segment generates the glycoprotein precursor (GPC) which can be cleaved into the envelope Gn and Gc proteins. [13] The L protein encoded by the L segment possesses enzymatic functions that are involved within transcription and replication. [13]

In addition to these segments, the virion also contains RdRP which are all enclosed in an envelope. [14] Unlike the other four genera in the family the hantavirion segments also contain a complementary 3'-terminal nucleotide sequence to the 5'-terminal sequence. These nucleotide sequences are AUCAUCAUCUG... at the 3′ end and UAGUAGUAUGC... at the 5′ end. [10]

Entry and replication cycle

The Hantavirus replication takes place strictly in the cytoplasm of a host cell primarily targeting endothelial cells. [15] During early infection, Andes virus can produce a weak, innate immune response in the cell. [15] The entry and uncoating of the virus begins when the virion attaches to cell receptors on the surface of the host cell, which then brings in the virus via endocytosis. [11] By a process called pH-dependent fusion between the virion and the endosomal membrane, nucleocapsids enter the cytoplasm. [9] The virus genome contains its own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) which directs both transcription and replication of the viral genome. Once the nucleocapsids are released, RdRp initiates transcription by binding to the encapsidated segments. [16] While M segment mRNAs are translated by membrane-bound ribosomes, L and S segment mRNAs are translated by free ribosomes. Once transcribed, the mRNA is capped by L proteins via Cap snatching. [17] These capped RNA fragments can then be transferred to L protein, to be further trimmed in length by the endonuclease and used by the RdRp to initiate viral mRNA synthesis. [13] Replication is terminated when the plasma membrane begins to fuse with cytoplasmic vesicles and mature virions are released. [10]

Signs and symptoms

Initial signs of an Andes orthohantavirus infection can easily be mistaken for the flu. Signs and symptoms can appear as early as 4 days and up to 6 weeks after exposure. [3] [4] The only way to diagnose Andes orthohantavirus as the cause for these symptoms is by testing the patient's blood for Andes orthohantavirus genetic material or for corresponding antibodies of Andes orthohantavirus. [4] Individuals are typically only infectious while they are showing symptoms such as having one or more of the following: [4]

Early symptoms

Severe symptoms

Although there are only two possible vectors of the virus, humans and rodents, there are multiple routes of infection to be aware of. These include: [3] [4]

Associated Diseases, Prevention, and Treatment

Andes Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS)

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome is an acute, severe, and sometimes fatal respiratory disease caused by an infection from the Andes orthohantavirus. [3] [4] Four to ten days after initial symptoms begin, respiratory symptoms indicating HPS can appear. Such symptoms include muscle aches, fatigue, shortness of breath, and fever. [18] HPS symptoms can develop quickly, therefore, it is imperative to seek healthcare immediately. Early care is more beneficial to the patient as there is no vaccine or specific treatment for HPS. In extreme cases, infected individuals may be intubated and receive oxygen therapy. [18]

Although hantavirus infections are prevalent in the United States, there currently are very few recorded cases of HPS due to infection from the Andes virus in the United States and the rest of North America; [19] however, there have been several cases reported in Chile and Argentina. [18]

Hantavirus Cardiopulmonary Syndrome (HCPS)

HCPS as a result of Andes orthohantavirus infection has a case fatality rate of about 25–35% in Argentina [20] [19] and 37% in Chile. [19] [21] ANDV, lineage ANDV-Sout, is the only hantavirus for which person-to-person transmission has been described; all other human hantavirus infections are transmitted exclusively from animals to humans. [5] [22] [23] Several ANDV strains are co-circulating in Argentina (e.g. Bermejo, Lechiguanas, Maciel, Oran and Pergamino). [24] [25]

In Argentina and Chile, the long-tailed rice rat, Oligoryzomys longicaudatus , and other species of the genus Oligoryzomys , have been documented as the reservoir for ANDV. [25] [26] [27] Another unique characteristic of ANDV is the availability of an animal model. ANDV causes lethal disease in the Syrian hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) that closely models the course of disease progression in humans, including a rapid progression from first symptoms to death, which is characterized by fluid in the pleural cavity and the histopathology of the lungs and spleen. [28] Lethality of ANDV in hamsters is not true of all viruses causing HCPS; hamsters infected with Sin Nombre virus, for example, show no symptoms of disease. [28]

Prevention

When visiting geographical locations where Andes orthohantavirus has been documented, such as South America, people should avoid areas of high rodent populations where the virus is more likely to be found and transmitted quickly and easily from rodent to the next. [3] [29] Properly disinfecting living spaces and areas where rodents may have been present will kill the virus before it is able to be contracted. To prevent transmission from contact with infected humans, individuals, infected or not, should hand-wash frequently, abstain from kissing or sexual activity with one another, and avoid sharing spaces of close confinement for long periods of time. [3] [4] [29]

Treatment

There is no current treatment, cure, or vaccine available for illness caused by Andes virus. However, if patients seek medical attention quickly, early symptoms can be abated through intensive care or intubation, if necessary, for patients with severe breathing difficulties. [3] [4]

Related Research Articles

<i>Orthohantavirus</i> Genus of viruses

Orthohantavirus is a genus of single-stranded, enveloped, negative-sense RNA viruses in the family Hantaviridae within the order Bunyavirales. Members of this genus may be called orthohantaviruses or simply hantaviruses.

<i>Sin Nombre orthohantavirus</i> Prototypical agent of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome

Sin Nombre orthohantavirus (SNV), a member of the genus Orthohantavirus, is the prototypical etiologic agent of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS).

<i>Bunyavirales</i> Order of RNA viruses

Bunyavirales is an order of segmented negative-strand RNA viruses with mainly tripartite genomes. Member viruses infect arthropods, plants, protozoans, and vertebrates. It is the only order in the class Ellioviricetes. The name Bunyavirales derives from Bunyamwera, where the original type species Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus was first discovered. Ellioviricetes is named in honor of late virologist Richard M. Elliott for his early work on bunyaviruses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arenavirus</span> Family of RNA viruses

An arenavirus is a bi- or trisegmented ambisense RNA virus that is a member of the family Arenaviridae. These viruses infect rodents and occasionally humans. A class of novel, highly divergent arenaviruses, properly known as reptarenaviruses, have also been discovered which infect snakes to produce inclusion body disease, mostly in boa constrictors. At least eight arenaviruses are known to cause human disease. The diseases derived from arenaviruses range in severity. Aseptic meningitis, a severe human disease that causes inflammation covering the brain and spinal cord, can arise from the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Hemorrhagic fever syndromes, including Lassa fever, are derived from infections such as Guanarito virus, Junin virus, Lassa virus, Lujo virus, Machupo virus, Sabia virus, or Whitewater Arroyo virus. Because of the epidemiological association with rodents, some arenaviruses and bunyaviruses are designated as roboviruses.

Seoul orthohantavirus (SEOV) is a member of the genus Orthohantavirus of rodent-borne viruses, and is one of the four hantaviruses that are known to cause Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). It is an Old World hantavirus; a negative sense, single-stranded, tri-segmented RNA virus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Argentinian mammarenavirus</span> Species of virus

Mammarenavirus juninense, better known as the Junin virus or Junín virus (JUNV), is an arenavirus in the Mammarenavirus genus that causes Argentine hemorrhagic fever (AHF). The virus took its original name from the city of Junín, around which the first cases of infection were reported, in 1958.

Playa de Oro virus (OROV) is a probable species of orthohantavirus found in the rodents Oryzomys couesi and Sigmodon mascotensis in the Mexican state of Colima. The former is thought to be the main host. The sequences of parts of the virus's RNA-based genome have been determined; they differ by 7–10% in amino acid composition and 22–24% in nucleotide composition from closely related viruses.

Black Creek Canal orthohantavirus (BCCV) is a single-stranded, negative sense RNA virus species of New World Orthohantavirus. It was first isolated in cotton rats found in the Black Creek Canal area of Dade County, Florida in 1995. The discovery followed from an isolated case of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome diagnosed in a Dade County resident.

Sangassou orthohantavirus(SANGV) is single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus species of the genus Orthohantavirus in the Bunyavirales order. It was first isolated in an African wood mouse (Hylomyscus simus) in the forest in Guinea, West Africa in 2010. It is named for the village near where the mouse was trapped. It is the first indigenous Murinae-associated African hantavirus to be discovered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome</span> Group of clinically similar illnesses caused by species of hantaviruses

Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is a group of clinically similar illnesses caused by species of hantaviruses. It is also known as Korean hemorrhagic fever and epidemic hemorrhagic fever. It is found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The species that cause HFRS include Hantaan orthohantavirus, Dobrava-Belgrade orthohantavirus, Saaremaa virus, Seoul orthohantavirus, Puumala orthohantavirus and other orthohantaviruses. Of these species, Hantaan River virus and Dobrava-Belgrade virus cause the most severe form of the syndrome and have the highest morbidity rates. When caused by the Puumala virus, it is also called nephropathia epidemica. This infection is known as sorkfeber in Swedish, myyräkuume in Finnish, and musepest in Norwegian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome</span> Viral pulmonary disease of humans

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) is one of two potentially fatal syndromes of zoonotic origin caused by species of hantavirus. These include Black Creek Canal virus (BCCV), New York orthohantavirus (NYV), Monongahela virus (MGLV), Sin Nombre orthohantavirus (SNV), and certain other members of hantavirus genera that are native to the United States and Canada.

Muju virus(MUV) is a zoonotic negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Orthohantavirus. It is a member virus of Puumala orthohantavirus. It is one of four rodent-borne Hantaviruses found in the Republic of Korea. It is the etiologic agent for Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). The other species responsible for HFRS in Korea are Seoul orthohantavirus, Hantaan orthohantavirus, and Soochong virus.

Monongahela virus (MGLV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense Orthohantavirus virus of zoonotic origin that causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.

Limestone Canyon virus (LSC) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA zoonotic Orthohantavirus that is genetically similar to Sin Nombre orthohantavirus which causes Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in humans. HPS causing hantaviruses are found only in the United States and South America.

Hantaan orthohantavirus (HTNV) is an enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus species of Old World Orthohantavirus. It is the causative agent of Korean hemorrhagic fever in humans. It is named for the Hantan River in South Korea, and in turn lends the name to its genus Orthohantavirus and family Hantaviridae.

Choclo orthohantavirus (CHOV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA zoonotic New World hantavirus. It was first isolated in 1999 in western Panama. The finding marked the first time Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) was found in Central America.

Rockport virus (RKPV) is a single-stranded, enveloped, negative-sense RNA orthohantavirus.

Asama orthohantavirus(ASAV), also called Asama virus, is a single-stranded, enveloped, segmented negative-sense RNA hantavirus. The hantavirus was isolated in Japan from Japanese shrew mole. Hantaviruses harbored by shrews are genetically closer to ASAV than to hantaviruses harbored by rodents. Host-switching may be evident in the future due to the viruses closeness to soricine shrew-borne hantaviruses. The detection of the ASAV was the first hantavirus found to be hosted by members of the family Talpidae, which includes shrew moles. Thoughts on hantavirus evolutionary history has expanded due to the discovery of ASAV.

Oxbow virus(OXBV) is a single-stranded, enveloped, negative-sense RNA orthohantavirus.

Blue River virus (BRV) is a single-stranded, negative sense RNA virus of New World hantavirus isolated from a white-footed mouse near the Blue River in Jackson County, Missouri in 1995. Its genome is similar to Sin Nombre orthohantavirus (SNV) but varies in the S1 and S2 segments. Like Sin Nombre orthohantavirus, Blue River virus causes Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in humans.

References

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