Arawak (Arowak, Aruák), also known as Lokono (Lokono Dian, literally "people's talk" by its speakers), is an Arawakan language spoken by the Lokono (Arawak) Indigenous peoples of South America in eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, and French Guiana.[2] It is the eponymous language of the Indigenous Arawakan language family.
Lokono is a critically endangered language.[4] The Lokono language is most commonly spoken in South America. Some specific countries where this language is spoken include Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Venezuela.[5] The percentage of living fluent speakers with active knowledge of the language is estimated to be 5% of the ethnic population.[6] There are small communities of semi-speakers who have varying degrees of comprehension and fluency in Lokono that keep the language alive.[7] It is estimated that there are around 2,500 remaining speakers (including fluent and semi-fluent speakers).[8] The decline in the use of Lokono as a language of communication is due to its lack of transmission from older speakers to the next generation. The language is not being passed to young children, as they are taught to speak the official languages of their countries.[4]
Classification
The Lokono language is part of the larger Arawakan language family spoken by indigenous people in South and Central America along with the Caribbean.[9] The family spans four countries of Central America — Belize, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua — and eight of South America — Bolivia, Guyana, French Guiana, Surinam, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Brazil (and also formerly Argentina and Paraguay). With about 40 extant languages, it is the largest language family in Latin America.[10]
Etymology
Arawak is a tribal name in reference to the main crop food, the cassava root, commonly known as manioc. The cassava root is a popular staple for millions of people in South America, Asia and Africa.[11] It is a woody shrub grown in tropical or subtropical regions. Speakers of Arawak also identify themselves as Lokono, which translates as "the people". They call their language Lokono Dian, "the people's speech".[12]
Alternative names of the same language include Arawák, Arahuaco, Aruak, Arowak, Arawac, Araguaco, Aruaqui, Arwuak, Arrowukas, Arahuacos, Locono, and Luccumi.[13]
Geographic distribution
Lokono is an Arawakan language most commonly found to be spoken in eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. There are approximately 2,500 native speakers today. The following are regions where Arawak has been found spoken by native speakers.[1]
No exact equivalent in American English. This is a retroflex r, pronounced with the tongue touching the back of the palate. It is found in Indian-English. Some English speakers also pronounce this sound in the middle of the word "better" or "party".
The Arawak language system has an alphabetical system similar to the Roman Alphabet with some minor changes and new additions to letters.
Character Used
Additional Usage
IPA symbol
Arawak Pronunciation
b
b
Like b in boy.
č
tj
t͡ʃ
Like ch in chair.
d
d ~ d͡ʒ
Like d in day. Before i the Arawak pronunciation sounds like the j in jeep.
f
ɸ
This sound does not exist in English. It is pronounced by narrowing your lips and blowing through them, as if you were playing a flute.
x
h
h
Like h in hay.
j
j
Like y in yes.
k
c, qu
k
Like the soft k sound in English ski.
kh
k, c, qu
kh
Like the hard k sound in English key.
l
l
Like l in light.
ř
rh, lh
ɽ
No exact equivalent in American English. This is a retroflex r, pronounced with the tongue touching the back of the palate. It is found in Indian English. Some American English speakers also pronounce this sound in the middle of the word "hurting."
m
m
Like m in moon.
n
n
Like n in night.
p
p
Like the soft p in spin.
r
ɾ
Like the r in Spanish pero, somewhat like the tt in American English butter.
s
z, c
s
Like the s in sun.
t
t ~ t͡ʃ
Like the soft t in star. Before i the Arawak pronunciation sounds like the ch in cheek.
th
t
th ~ t͡ʃʰ
Like the hard t in tar. Before i the Arawak pronunciation sounds like the ch in cheek.
hu
w
w
Like w in way.
'
ʔ
A pause sound (glottal stop), like the one in the middle of the word "uh-oh."
Character Used
Additional Usage
IPA Symbol
Arawak Pronunciation
a
a
Like the a in father.
aa
a·
aː
Like a only held longer.
e
e
Like the e sound in Spanish, similar to the a in gate.
ee
e·, e:
eː
Like e only held longer.
i
i
Like the i in police.
ii
i·, i:
iː
Like i only held longer.
o
o ~ u
Like o in note or u in flute.
oo
o·, o:
oː
Like o only held longer.
y
ɨ
Like the u in upon, only pronounced higher in the mouth.
yy
y:
ɨː
Like y only held longer.
The letters in brackets under each alphabetical letter is the IPA symbol for each letter.[1]
Grammar
The personal pronouns are shown below. The forms on the left are free forms, which can stand alone. The forms on the right are bound forms (prefixes), which must be attached to the front of a verb, a noun, or a postposition.[16]
Singular
Plural
1st Person
de, da-
we, wa-
2nd Person
bi, by-
hi, hy-
3rd Person
li, ly- (he)
tho, thy- (she)
ne, na-
Cross-referencing affixes
All verbs are sectioned into transitive, active transitive, and stative intransitive.[14]
Prefixes (A/Sa) and Suffixes (O/So) of Cross-Reference Affixes
prefixes
suffixes
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
nu- or ta-
wa-
-na, -te
-wa
2nd person
(p)i-
(h)i-
-pi
-hi
3rd person
non-formal
ri-, i
na-
ri, -i
-na
formal
thu-, ru-
na-
-thu,-ru, -u
-na
'impersonal'
pa-
-
-
-
A= Sa=cross referencing prefix
O=So= cross referencing suffix
Vocabulary
Gender
In the Arawak language, there are two distinct genders of masculine and feminine. They are used in cross-referencing affixes, in demonstratives, in nominalization and in personal pronouns. Typical pronominal genders, for example, are feminine and non-feminine. The markers go back to Arawak third-person singular cross-referencing: feminine -(r)u, masculine -(r)i[13]
Number
Arawak Languages do distinguish singular and plural, however plural is optional unless the referent is a person. Markers used are *-na/-ni (animate/human plural) and *-pe (inanimate/animate non-human plural).[13]
Possession
Arawak nouns are fragmented into inalienably and alienably possessed. Inalienably crossed nouns include things such as body parts, terms for kinship and common nouns like food selections. Deverbal nominalization belong to that grouping. Both forms of possession are marked with prefixes (A/Sa). Inalienably possessed nouns have what is known as an "unpossessed" form (also known as "absolute") marked with the suffix *-tfi or *-hV. Alienably possessed nouns take one of the suffixes *-ne/ni, *-te, *-re, *i/e, or *-na. All suffixes used as nominalizers.[17]
Negation
Arawak languages have a negative prefix ma- and attributive-relative prefix ka-. An example of the use is ka-witi-w ("a woman with good eyes") and ma-witti-w ("a woman with bad eyes", i.e., a blind woman).
Tenses
Tenses are added at the end of a sentence: past tense is indicated with bura or bora (from ubura "before"), future tense with dikki (from adiki "after"), present continuous tense uses loko or roko.[18][19][further explanation needed]
↑Edwards, W.; Gibson, K. (1979). "An Ethnohistory of Amerindians in Guyana". Ethnohistory. 26 (2): 161. doi:10.2307/481091. JSTOR481091.
↑Harbert, Wayne; Pet, Willem (1988). "Movement and Adjunct Morphology in Arawak and Other Languages". International Journal of American Linguistics. 54 (4): 416–435. doi:10.1086/466095. S2CID144291701.
↑De Carvalho, Fernando O. (2016). "The diachrony of person-number marking in the Lokono-Wayuunaiki subgroup of the Arawak family: reconstruction, sound change and analogy". Language Sciences. 55: 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2016.02.001.
↑Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1995). "Person marking and discourse in North Arawak languages". Studia Linguistica. 49 (2): 152–195. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9582.1995.tb00469.x.
12Pet, William (1988). Lokono dian: the Arawak language of Surinam: a sketch of its grammatical structure and lexicon (PhD thesis). Cornell University.
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