Book of Leviticus

Last updated

The Book ofLeviticus ( /lɪˈvɪtɪkəs/ , from Ancient Greek : Λευιτικόν, Leuïtikón; Hebrew : וַיִּקְרָא, Vayyīqrāʾ, "And He called") is the third book of the Torah (the Pentateuch) and of the Old Testament, also known as the Third Book of Moses. [1] Many hypotheses presented by scholars as to its origins agree that it developed over a long period of time, reaching its present form during the Persian Period, from 538 to 332 BC, although there is much skepticism.

Contents

Most of its chapters (1–7, 11–27) consist of Yahweh's speeches to Moses, which Yahweh tells Moses to repeat to the Israelites. This takes place within the story of the Israelites' Exodus after they escaped Egypt and reached Mount Sinai (Exodus 19:1). The Book of Exodus narrates how Moses led the Israelites in building the Tabernacle (Exodus 35–40) with God's instructions (Exodus 25–31). In Leviticus, God tells the Israelites and their priests, Aaron and his sons, how to make offerings in the Tabernacle and how to conduct themselves while camped around the holy tent sanctuary. Leviticus takes place during the month or month-and-a-half between the completion of the Tabernacle (Exodus 40:17) and the Israelites' departure from Sinai (Numbers 1:1, 10:11).

The instructions of Leviticus emphasize ritual, legal, and moral practices rather than beliefs. Nevertheless, they reflect the world view of the creation story in Genesis 1 that God wishes to live with humans. The book teaches that faithful performance of the sanctuary rituals can make that possible, so long as the people avoid sin and impurity whenever possible. The rituals, especially the sin and guilt offerings, provide the means to gain forgiveness for sins (Leviticus 4–5) and purification from impurities (Leviticus 11–16) so that God can continue to live in the Tabernacle in the midst of the people. [2]

Title

4Q120, a Greek manuscript of Leviticus from the 1st century BCE 4Q120 frg20.jpg
4Q120, a Greek manuscript of Leviticus from the 1st century BCE

The English name Leviticus comes from the Latin Leviticus, which is in turn from the Ancient Greek : Λευιτικόν [3] (Leuitikon), referring to the priestly tribe of the Israelites, "Levi". The Greek expression is in turn a variant of the rabbinic Hebrew torat kohanim, [4] "law of priests", as many of its laws relate to priests. [5]

In Hebrew the book is called Vayikra (Hebrew : וַיִּקְרָא), from the opening of the book, va-yikra "And He [ God ] called." [4]

Structure

The outlines from commentaries are similar, though not identical; compare those of Wenham, Hartley, Milgrom, and Watts. [6] [7] [8] [9]

Summary

Vaikro - Book of Leviticus, Warsaw edition, 1860, page 1 Book of Leviticus, Mikraot Gdolot, Warsaw edition, 1860, Page 1.jpg
Vaikro – Book of Leviticus, Warsaw edition, 1860, page 1

Chapters 1–5 describe the various sacrifices from the sacrificers' point of view, although the priests are essential for handling the blood. Chapters 6–7 go over much the same ground, but from the point of view of the priest, who, as the one actually carrying out the sacrifice and dividing the "portions", needs to know how to do it. Sacrifices are between God, the priest, and the offers, although in some cases the entire sacrifice is a single portion to God—i.e., burnt to ashes. [10]

Chapters 8–10 describe how Moses consecrates Aaron and his sons as the first priests, the first sacrifices, and God's destruction of two of Aaron's sons for ritual offenses. The purpose is to underline the character of altar priesthood (i.e., those priests with power to offer sacrifices to God) as an Aaronite privilege, and the responsibilities and dangers of their position. [11]

With sacrifice and priesthood established, chapters 11–15 instruct the lay people on purity (or cleanliness). Eating certain animals produces uncleanliness, as does giving birth; certain skin diseases (but not all) are unclean, as are certain conditions affecting walls and clothing (mildew and similar conditions); and unusual bodily discharges, including female menses and male emissions (gonorrhea), are unclean. The reasoning behind the food rules are obscure; for the rest the guiding principle seems to be that all these conditions involve a loss of "life force", usually but not always blood. [12]

Chapter 16 concerns the Day of Atonement (though that phrase appears first in 23:27). This is the only day on which the High Priest is to enter the holiest part of the sanctuary, the holy of holies. He is to sacrifice a bull for the sins of the priests, and a goat for the sins of the laypeople. The priest is to send a second goat into the desert to "Azazel", bearing the sins of the whole people. Azazel's identity is unknown, with some Christian tradition linking him to a fallen angel, older English Bible translations like the KJV translating it as "a scapegoat". [13]

Chapters 17–26 are the Holiness code. It begins with a prohibition on all slaughter of animals outside the Temple, even for food, and then prohibits a long list of sexual contacts and also child sacrifice. The "holiness" injunctions which give the code its name begin with the next section: there are penalties for the worship of Molech, consulting mediums and wizards, cursing one's parents and engaging in unlawful sex. Priests receive instruction on mourning rituals and acceptable bodily defects. The punishment for blasphemy is death, and there is the setting of rules for eating sacrifices; there is an explanation of the calendar, and there are rules for sabbatical and Jubilee years; there are rules for oil lamps and bread in the sanctuary; and there are rules for slavery. [14] The code ends by telling the Israelites they must choose between the law and prosperity on the one hand, or, on the other, horrible punishments, the worst of which will be expulsion from the land. [15]

Chapter 27 is a disparate and probably late addition telling about persons and things serving as dedication to the Lord and how one can redeem, instead of fulfill, vows. [16]

Composition

The Tabernacle and the Camp (19th-century drawing) Tabernacle Camp.jpg
The Tabernacle and the Camp (19th-century drawing)

The majority of scholars have concluded that the Pentateuch received its final form during the Persian period (538–332 BC). [17] Nevertheless, Leviticus had a long period of growth before reaching that form. [18]

The entire composition of the book of Leviticus is Priestly literature. [19] Most scholars see chapters 1–16 (the Priestly code) and chapters 17–26 (the Holiness code) as the work of two related schools, but while the Holiness material employs the same technical terms as the Priestly code, it broadens their meaning from pure ritual to the theological and moral, turning the ritual of the Priestly code into a model for the relationship of Israel to Yahweh: as the tabernacle, which is apart from uncleanliness, becomes holy by the presence of Yahweh, so he will dwell among Israel when Israel receives purification (becomes holy) and separates from other peoples. [20] The ritual instructions in the Priestly code apparently grew from priests giving instruction and answering questions about ritual matters; the Holiness code (or H) used to be a separate document, later becoming part of Leviticus, but it seems better to think of the Holiness authors as editors who worked with the Priestly code and actually produced Leviticus as is now extant. [21]

Themes

Sacrifice and ritual

Many scholars argue that the rituals of Leviticus have a theological meaning concerning Israel's relationship with its God. Jacob Milgrom was especially influential in spreading this view. He maintained that the priestly regulations in Leviticus expressed a rational system of theological thought. The writers expected them to be put into practice in Israel's temple, so the rituals would express this theology as well, as well as ethical concern for the poor. [22] Milgrom also argued that the book's purity regulations (chapters 11–15) have a basis in ethical thinking. [23] Many other interpreters have followed Milgrom in exploring the theological and ethical implications of Leviticus's regulations (e.g., Marx, Balentine), though some have questioned how systematic they really are. [24] Ritual, therefore, is not taking a series of actions for their own sake, but a means of maintaining the relationship between God, the world, and humankind. [25]

Kehuna (Jewish priesthood)

The main function of the priests is service at the altar, and only the sons of Aaron are priests in the full sense. [26] (Ezekiel also distinguishes between altar-priests and lower Levites, but in Ezekiel the altar-priests are sons of Zadok instead of sons of Aaron; many scholars see this as a remnant of struggles between different priestly factions in First Temple times, finding resolution by the Second Temple into a hierarchy of Aaronite altar-priests and lower-level Levites, including singers, gatekeepers and the like.) [27]

In chapter 10, God kills Nadab and Abihu, the oldest sons of Aaron, for offering "strange incense". Aaron has two sons left. Commentators have read various messages in the incident: a reflection of struggles between priestly factions in the post–Exilic period (Gerstenberger); or a warning against offering incense outside the Temple, where there might be the risk of invoking strange gods (Milgrom). In any case, there has been a pollution of the sanctuary by the bodies of the two dead priests, leading into the next theme, holiness. [28]

Uncleanliness and purity

Ritual purity is essential for an Israelite to be able to approach Yahweh and remain part of the community. [11] Uncleanliness threatens holiness; [29] Chapters 11–15 review the various causes of uncleanliness and describe the rituals which will restore cleanliness; [30] one is to maintain cleanliness through observation of the rules on sexual behaviour, family relations, land ownership, worship, sacrifice, and observance of holy days. [31]

Yahweh dwells with Israel in the holy of holies. All of the priestly ritual focuses on Yahweh and the construction and maintenance of a holy space, but sin generates impurity, as do everyday events such as childbirth and menstruation; impurity pollutes the holy dwelling place. Failure to purify the sacred space ritually could result in God's leaving, which would be disastrous. [32]

Infectious diseases in chapter 13

In chapter 13, God instructs Moses and Aaron on how to identify infectious diseases and deal with them accordingly. The translators and interpreters of the Hebrew Bible in various languages have never reached a consensus on these infectious diseases, or tzaraath (Hebrew צרעת), and the translation and interpretation of the scriptures are not known for certain. The most common translation is that these infectious diseases are leprosy, [33] [34] however, what is described in chapter 13 does not represent a typical manifestation of leprosy. Modern dermatology shows that many of the infectious diseases in chapter 13 were likely dermatophytoses, a group of highly contagious skin diseases. [35]

The infectious disease of the chin described in verses 29–37 seems to be Tinea barbae in men or Tinea faciei in women; the infectious disease described in verses 29–37 (as resulting in hair loss and eventual baldness) seems to be Tinea capitis (Favus). Verses 1–17 seem to describe Tinea corporis.

The Hebrew word bohaq in verses 38–39 is translated as tetter or freckles, [33] [34] likely because translators did not know what it meant at the time, and thus, translated it incorrectly. Later translations identify it as talking about vitiligo; however, vitiligo is not an infectious disease. The disease, described as healing itself and leaving white patches after infection,[ citation needed ] is likely to be pityriasis versicolor (tinea versicolor). [35] Tetter originally referred to an outbreak, which later evolved meaning ringworm-like lesions. Therefore, a common name for Tinea pedis (athlete's foot) was Cantlie's foot tetter. [36] In addition, verses 18–23 describe infections after scald, and verses 24–28 describe infections after burn.

Atonement

The Scapegoat (1854 painting by William Holman Hunt) William Holman Hunt - The Scapegoat.jpg
The Scapegoat (1854 painting by William Holman Hunt)

Through sacrifice, the priest "makes atonement" for sin and the offeror receives forgiveness (but only if Yahweh accepts the sacrifice). [37] Atonement rituals involve the pouring or sprinkling of blood as the symbol of the life of the victim: the blood has the power to wipe out or absorb the sin. [38] The two-part division of the book structurally reflects the role of atonement: chapters 1–16 call for the establishment of the institution for atonement, and chapters 17–27 call for the life of the atoned community in holiness. [39]

Holiness

The consistent theme of chapters 17–26 is in the repetition of the phrase, "Be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy." [31] Holiness in ancient Israel and the Hebrew Bible had a different meaning than in contemporary usage: it might have been regarded as the essence of Yahweh, an invisible but physical and potentially dangerous force. [40] Specific objects, or even days, can be holy, but they derive holiness from being connected with Yahweh—the seventh day, the tabernacle, and the priests all derive their holiness from him. [41] As a result, Israel had to maintain its own holiness in order to live safely alongside God. [42]

The need for holiness is for the possession of the Promised Land (Canaan), where the Jews will become a holy people: "You shall not do as they do in the land of Egypt where you dwelt, and you shall not do as they do in the land of Canaan to which I am bringing you...You shall do my ordinances and keep my statutes...I am the Lord, your God." (Leviticus 18:3). [43]

Subsequent tradition

Portion of the Temple Scroll Temple Scroll.png
Portion of the Temple Scroll

Leviticus, as part of the Torah, became the law book of Jerusalem's Second Temple as well as of the Samaritan temple. Its influence is evident among the Dead Sea Scrolls, which included fragments of seventeen manuscripts of Leviticus dating from the 3rd to the 1st centuries BC. [44] Many other Qumran scrolls cite the book, especially the Temple Scroll and 4QMMT.

Jews and Christians have not observed Leviticus's instructions for animal offerings since the 1st century AD, following the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD. As there was no longer a Temple at which to offer animal sacrifices, Judaism pivoted towards prayer and the study of the Torah, eventually giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism. Nevertheless, Leviticus constitutes a major source of Jewish law and is traditionally the first book children learn in the Rabbinic system of education. There are two main Midrashim on Leviticus—the halakhic one (Sifra) and a more aggadic one (Vayikra Rabbah).

The New Testament, particularly the Epistle to the Hebrews, uses ideas and images from Leviticus to describe Christ as the high priest who offers his own blood as a sin offering. [38] Therefore, Christians do not make animal offerings either, because as Gordon Wenham summarized: "With the death of Christ the only sufficient 'burnt offering' was offered once and for all, and therefore the animal sacrifices which foreshadowed Christ's sacrifice were made obsolete." [45]

Christians generally have the view that the New Covenant supersedes the Old Testament's ritual laws, which includes many of the rules in Leviticus. Christians, therefore, do not usually follow Leviticus' rules regarding diet, purity, and agriculture. Christian teachings have differed, however, as to where to draw the line between ritual and moral regulations. [46] In Homilies on Leviticus, the third century theologian, Origen, expounded on the qualities of priests as models for Christians to be perfect in everything, strict, wise and to examine themselves individually, forgive sins, and convert sinners (by words and by doctrine). [47]

Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Leviticus

A Torah scroll and silver pointer (yad) used in reading YanovTorah.JPG
A Torah scroll and silver pointer ( yad ) used in reading

For detailed contents, see:

See also

Related Research Articles

The Book of Numbers is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah. The book has a long and complex history; its final form is possibly due to a Priestly redaction of a Yahwistic source made sometime in the early Persian period. However, this is a point of contention for many secular and biblical scholars. The name of the book comes from the two censuses taken of the Israelites.

The Book of Exodus is the second book of the Bible. It narrates the story of the Exodus, in which the Israelites leave slavery in Biblical Egypt through the strength of Yahweh, who has chosen them as his people. The Israelites then journey with the prophet Moses to Mount Sinai, where Yahweh gives the 10 commandments and they enter into a covenant with Yahweh, who promises to make them a "holy nation, and a kingdom of priests" on condition of their faithfulness. He gives them their laws and instructions to build the Tabernacle, the means by which he will come from heaven and dwell with them and lead them in a holy war to possess the land of Canaan, which has earlier, according to the story of Genesis, been promised to the seed of Abraham.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Torah</span> First five books of the Hebrew Bible

The Torah is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. It is known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses by Christians. It is also known as the Written Torah in Jewish tradition. If meant for liturgic purposes, it takes the form of a Torah scroll. If in bound book form, it is called Chumash, and is usually printed with the rabbinic commentaries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nadab and Abihu</span> Sons of Aaron

In the biblical books Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Nadab and Abihu were the two oldest sons of Aaron. According to Leviticus 10, they offered a sacrifice with "foreign fire" before the LORD, disobeying his instructions, and were immediately consumed by God's fire.

A sin offering is a sacrificial offering described and commanded in the Torah ; it could be fine flour or a proper animal. A sin offering also occurs in 2 Chronicles 29:21 where seven bulls, seven rams, seven lambs and seven he-goats were sacrificed on the command of King Hezekiah for the kingdom, for the sanctuary, and for Judah. Like all types of sacrifices offered on the altar, the flour had to be unscented and the animal had to be completely unblemished. This offered sacrifice accompanied the important required core means of atonement for the committing of an unintentional transgression of a prohibition, that either has brought guilt upon the 'community of Israel' or the individual. This offering is brought during or after atonement for those transgressions that had been committed inadvertently, or in ignorance: intentional transgressions could only be absolved by other forms of atonement, or in severe cases kareth. It was distinct from the biblical guilt offering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tabernacle</span> Portable earthly dwelling place of Yahweh from the Exodus until the conquest of Canaan

According to the Hebrew Bible, the tabernacle, also known as the Tent of the Congregation, was the portable earthly dwelling place of Yahweh used by the Israelites from the Exodus until the conquest of Canaan. Moses was instructed at Mount Sinai to construct and transport the tabernacle with the Israelites on their journey through the wilderness and their subsequent conquest of the Promised Land. After 440 years, Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem superseded it as the dwelling-place of God.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holiness code</span> Leviticus chapters 17–26

The Holiness code is used in biblical criticism to refer to Leviticus chapters 17–26, and sometimes passages in other books of the Pentateuch, especially Numbers and Exodus. It is so called due to its highly repeated use of the word holy. Kadash is usually translated as "holy", but originally meant "set apart", with "special", "clean/pure", "whole" and "perfect" as associated meanings. The term Holiness Code was first coined as the Heiligkeitsgesetz by German theologian August Klostermann in 1877. Critical biblical scholars have regarded it as a distinct unit and have noted that the style is noticeably different from the main body of Leviticus. Unlike the remainder of Leviticus, the many laws of the Holiness Code are expressed very closely packed together, and very briefly.

In Judaism, the korban, also spelled qorban or corban, is any of a variety of sacrificial offerings described and commanded in the Torah. The plural form is korbanot, korbanoth, or korbanos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Priestly source</span> One of the four sources of the Torah in the documentary hypothesis

The Priestly source is perhaps the most widely recognized of the sources underlying the Torah. It is both stylistically and theologically distinct from other material in the Torah, and includes a set of claims that are contradicted by non-Priestly passages and therefore uniquely characteristic: no sacrifice before the institution is ordained by Yahweh (God) at Sinai, the exalted status of Aaron and the priesthood, and the use of the divine title El Shaddai before God reveals his name to Moses, to name a few. In general, the Priestly work is concerned with priestly matters – ritual law, the origins of shrines and rituals, and genealogies – all expressed in a formal, repetitive style. It stresses the rules and rituals of worship, and the crucial role of priests, expanding considerably on the role given to Aaron.

The Deuteronomic Code is the name given by academics to the law code set out in chapters 12 to 26 of the Book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible. The code outlines a special relationship between the Israelites and Yahweh and provides instructions covering "a variety of topics including religious ceremonies and ritual purity, civil and criminal law, and the conduct of war". They are similar to other collections of laws found in the Torah such as the Covenant Code at Exodus 20–23, except for the portion discussing the Ethical Decalogue, which is usually treated separately. This separate treatment stems not from any concern over authorship, but merely because the Ethical Decalogue is treated academically as a subject in its own right.

The Priestly Code is the name given, by academia, to the body of laws expressed in the Torah which do not form part of the Holiness Code, the Covenant Code, the Ritual Decalogue, or the Ethical Decalogue. The Priestly Code constitutes the majority of Leviticus, as well as some of the laws expressed in Numbers. The code forms a large portion, approximately one third, of the commandments of the Torah, and thus is a major source of Jewish law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jacob Milgrom</span> Rabbi Academic

Jacob Milgrom was a prominent American Jewish Bible scholar and Conservative rabbi. Milgrom's major contribution to biblical research was in the field of cult and worship. Although he accepted the documentary hypothesis, contrary to the classical bible critics, he traced a direct line of development from the Priestly Code (P), to the Holiness Code (H), to the cultic innovations of Ezekiel, to the cultic writings of the Dead Sea sect and finally to Jewish law (halacha) of the Mishnah and Talmud. Best known for his comprehensive Torah commentaries and work on the Dead Sea Scrolls, he also published extensively on the Book of Ezekiel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vayikra (parashah)</span> Torah portion

Parashat Vayikra, VaYikra, Va-yikra, Wayyiqra, or Wayyiqro is the 24th weekly Torah portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the first in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah lays out the laws of sacrifices. It constitutes Leviticus 1:1–5:26.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tzav</span>

Tzav, Tsav, Zav, Sav, or Ṣaw is the 25th weekly Torah portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the second in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah teaches how the priests performed the sacrifices and describes the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The parashah constitutes Leviticus 6:1–8:36. The parashah is made up of 5,096 Hebrew letters, 1,353 Hebrew words, 97 verses, and 170 lines in a Torah scroll. Jews read it the 24th or 25th Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in the second half of March or the first half of April.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shemini (parashah)</span>

Shemini, Sh'mini, or Shmini is the 26th weekly Torah portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the third in the Book of Leviticus. Parashah Shemini tells of the consecration of the Tabernacle, the deaths of Nadab and Abihu, and the dietary laws of kashrut. The parashah constitutes Leviticus 9:1–11:47. It is made up of 4,670 Hebrew letters, 1,238 Hebrew words, 91 verses, and 157 lines in a Torah Scroll.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acharei Mot</span> Portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading

Acharei Mot is the 29th weekly Torah portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading. It is the sixth weekly portion in the Book of Leviticus, containing Leviticus 16:1–18:30. It is named after the fifth and sixth Hebrew words of the parashah, its first distinctive words.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naso (parashah)</span> Torah reading

Naso or Nasso is the 35th weekly Torah portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the second in the Book of Numbers. It constitutes Numbers 4:21–7:89. The parashah addresses priestly duties, camp purification, restitution for wrongs committed, the wife accused of unfaithfulness, the nazirite, the Priestly Blessing, and consecration of the Tabernacle. Naso has the largest number of letters, words, and verses of any of the 54 weekly Torah portions. The parashah is made up of 8,632 Hebrew letters, 2,264 Hebrew words, 176 verses, and 311 lines in a Torah Scroll.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Burnt offering (Judaism)</span> A burnt offering in the Hebrew Bible

A burnt offering in Judaism is a form of sacrifice first described in the Hebrew Bible. As a tribute to God, a burnt offering was entirely burnt on the altar. This is in contrast to other forms of sacrifice, which was partly burnt and most of it eaten in communion at a sacrificial meal.

The composition of the Torah was a process that involved multiple authors over an extended period of time. While Jewish tradition holds that all five books were originally written by Moses sometime in the 2nd millennium BCE, leading scholars have rejected Mosaic authorship since the 17th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Numbers 31</span> 31st chapter of the Book of Numbers

Numbers 31 is the 31st chapter of the Book of Numbers, the fourth book of the Pentateuch (Torah), the central part of the Hebrew Bible, a sacred text in Judaism and Christianity. Scholars such as Israel Knohl and Dennis T. Olson name this chapter the War against the Midianites.

References

  1. ↑ "The Third Book of Moses, Called Leviticus". The Bible: Authorized King James Version. Oxford Biblical Studies Online, Oxford University Press . Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  2. ↑ Gorman, pp. 4–5, 14–16
  3. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Leviticus"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 515.
  4. 1 2 Berlin & Brettler 2014, p. 193.
  5. ↑ Hezekiah ben Manoah (Chizkuni), closing notes to Leviticus
  6. ↑ Wenham, pp. 3–4
  7. ↑ Hartley, pp. vii–viii
  8. ↑ Milgrom (1991), pp. v–x
  9. ↑ Watts (2013), pp. 12–20
  10. ↑ Grabbe (2006), p. 208
  11. 1 2 Kugler, Hartin, p. 82
  12. ↑ Kugler, Hartin, pp. 82–83
  13. ↑ Kugler, Hartin, p. 83
  14. ↑ "Leviticus 25 NIV". niv.scripturetext.com. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
  15. ↑ Kugler, Hartin, pp. 83–84
  16. ↑ Kugler, Hartin, p. 84
  17. ↑ Newsom, p.26
  18. ↑ Grabbe (1998), p. 92
  19. ↑ Levine (2006), p. 11
  20. ↑ Houston, p. 102
  21. ↑ Houston, pp. 102–03
  22. ↑ Milgrom (2004), pp. 8–16.
  23. ↑ Milgrom (1991), pp. 704–41.
  24. ↑ Watts (2013), pp. 40–54.
  25. ↑ Balentine (1999) p. 150
  26. ↑ Grabbe (2006), p. 211
  27. ↑ Grabbe (2006), p. 211 (fn. 11)
  28. ↑ Houston, p. 110
  29. ↑ Davies, Rogerson, p. 101
  30. ↑ Marx, p. 104
  31. 1 2 Balentine (2002), p. 8
  32. ↑ Gorman, pp. 10–11
  33. 1 2 studylight.org. "Expository Notes of Dr. Thomas Constable Leviticus13". Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  34. 1 2 biblestudytools.com. "Encyclopedias – International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Tetter". Archived from the original on 3 October 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  35. 1 2 Kathryn P Trayes, Katherine Savage, James S Studdiford. "Annular Lesions: Diagnosis and Treatment,Am Fam Physician.2018 Sep 1;98(5):283–291" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ Homei, A.; Worboys, M. (11 November 2013). Fungal Disease in Britain and the United States 1850–2000: Mycoses and Modernity. Springer. 2013-11-11: 44. ISBN 978-1-137-37702-9. ISBN   978-1-137-37702-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  37. ↑ Houston, p. 106
  38. 1 2 Houston, p. 107
  39. ↑ Knierim, p. 114
  40. ↑ Rodd, p. 7
  41. ↑ Brueggemann, p. 99
  42. ↑ Rodd, p. 8
  43. ↑ Clines, p.56
  44. ↑ Watts (2013), p. 10
  45. ↑ Wenham, p. 65
  46. ↑ Watts (2013), pp. 77–86
  47. ↑ Brattston, David W. T. (2014). Traditional Christian Ethics, Volume 2. WestBow Press. p. 156. ISBN   978-1-4908-5937-8.

Bibliography

Translations of Leviticus

Commentaries on Leviticus

General

Online versions of Leviticus:

Related article:

Brief introduction

Book of Leviticus
Preceded by Hebrew Bible Succeeded by
Christian
Old Testament
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.