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Cannabis is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: Cannabis sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. Alternatively, C. ruderalis may be included within C. sativa, all three may be treated as subspecies of C. sativa, or C. sativa may be accepted as a single undivided species. The genus is widely accepted as being indigenous to and originating from Asia.
Khat or qat is a flowering plant native to eastern and southern Africa. Khat contains the alkaloid cathinone, a stimulant which causes greater sociability, excitement, loss of appetite, and mild euphoria. Among communities from the areas where the plant is native, khat-chewing has historical relevance dating back thousands of years, analogous—but slightly different—to the use of coca leaves in South America’s Andes Mountains or the betel nut preparations in South Asia; khat is often chewed socially, to stimulate conversation among groups of men in a lounge, smoking hookah.
The gateway drug effect is a comprehensive catchphrase for the often observed effect that the use of a psychoactive substance is coupled to an increased probability of the use of further substances. Possible causes are biological alterations in the brain due to the earlier substance exposure and similar attitudes of people who use different substances across different substances. In 2020, the National Institute on Drug Abuse released a study backing allegations that marijuana is a "gateway" to more dangerous substance use, though not for the majority of people who use substances. A literature review by the United States Department of Justice found no conclusive evidence that the link is causal.
Cannabis, also known as marijuana among other names, is a psychoactive drug from the cannabis plant. Native to Central or South Asia, the cannabis plant has been used as a drug for both recreational and entheogenic purposes and in various traditional medicines for centuries. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive component of cannabis, which is one of the 483 known compounds in the plant, including at least 65 other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD). Cannabis can be used by smoking, vaporizing, within food, or as an extract.
Somalis in the United Kingdom include British citizens and residents born in or with ancestors from Somalia. The United Kingdom (UK) is home to the largest Somali community in Europe, with an estimated 108,000 Somali-born immigrants residing in the UK in 2018 according to the Office for National Statistics. The majority of these live in England, with the largest number found in London. Smaller Somali communities exist in Birmingham, Bristol, Manchester, Liverpool, Leicester, Milton Keynes, Sheffield and Cardiff.
A drug is any chemical substance that when consumed causes a change in an organism's physiology, including its psychology, if applicable. Drugs are typically distinguished from food and other substances that provide nutritional support. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, absorption via a patch on the skin, suppository, or dissolution under the tongue.
A drug policy is the policy regarding the control and regulation of psychoactive substances, particularly those that are addictive or cause physical and mental dependence. While drug policies are generally implemented by governments, entities at all levels may have specific policies related to drugs.
Substituted amphetamines are a class of compounds based upon the amphetamine structure; it includes all derivative compounds which are formed by replacing, or substituting, one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with substituents. The compounds in this class span a variety of pharmacological subclasses, including stimulants, empathogens, and hallucinogens, among others. Examples of substituted amphetamines are amphetamine (itself), methamphetamine, ephedrine, cathinone, phentermine, mephentermine, tranylcypromine, bupropion, methoxyphenamine, selegiline, amfepramone (diethylpropion), pyrovalerone, MDMA (ecstasy), and DOM (STP).
Frank Neuner was born 1971. He is professor of Clinical Psychology at Faculty of Psychology and Sports Science, Bielefeld University.
Cannabis in Papua New Guinea is illegal, but the nation is a significant producer and consumer of cannabis. Cannabis is sometimes called spak brus in local parlance.
Cannabis in Egypt is illegal, however it is widely used but not publicly. Law enforcements are often particularly lax when it comes to cannabis smokers. Also, its use is a part of the common culture in the country for many people. Large-scale smuggling of cannabis is punishable by death, while penalties for possessing even small amounts can also be severe. Despite this, these laws are not enforced in many parts of Egypt, where cannabis is often consumed openly in local cafes.
Cannabis in Chile is illegal for all production and public consumption, though private at-home consumption, grow and selling is allowed for medical use. It is widely consumed, with the highest per-capita use in Latin America. In 2014 Chile began clinical trials on medical marijuana, and in 2015 a decriminalization bill successfully passed the lower house of the Chilean Congress.
Cannabis in Sierra Leone is illegal, but is widely cultivated and consumed in the country, and exported to neighboring countries and to Europe. Cannabis is known locally as diamba.
Cannabis in Suriname is illegal. Cannabis is the most popular illegal drug in Suriname.
In Judaism, there is debate that cannabis may have been used ritually in ancient Judaism, and the use of cannabis continues to be a controversial topic in modern Judaism.
Cannabis usage is currently prohibited in the United States military, but historically it has been used recreationally by some troops, and some cannabis-based medicines were used in the military as late as the twentieth century.
Cannabis in Yemen is illegal. Cannabis is less common in Yemen than khat.
Cannabis in Vietnam is illegal, but is cultivated within the country and is known as cần sa.
Cannabis in Jordan is illegal. In 2018, Anwar Tarawneh, Director of the Anti-Narcotics Department (AND) reported that "marijuana is the most consumed drug in Jordan", with the AND seizing 1.5 tonnes of cannabis that year. As Jordan is a signatory to the 1961 United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.
Two main questions arise in the law surrounding driving after having ingested cannabis: (1) whether cannabis actually impairs driving ability, and (2) whether the common practice of testing for THC is a reliable means to measure impairment. On the first question, studies are mixed. Several recent, extensive studies–including one conducted by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and one conducted by the American Automobile Association (AAA)–show that drivers with detectable THC in their blood are no more likely to cause car crashes than drivers with no amount of THC in their blood. Others show that cannabis can impair certain abilities important to safe driving –but no studies have been able to show that this increases the actual risk of crashing, or that drivers with THC in their blood cause a disproportionate number of crashes. On the second question, the studies that have been conducted so far have consistently found that THC blood levels and degree of impairment are not closely related. No known relationship between blood levels of THC and increased relative crash risk, or THC blood levels and level of driving impairment, has been shown by single-crash or classic-control studies. Thus, even though it is possible that cannabis impairs driving ability to some extent, there are currently no reliable means to test or measure whether a driver was actually impaired.
References
- 1 2 Martin R. Ganzglass; Somalia (1971). The Penal code of the Somali Democratic Republic: with cases, commentary, and examples. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-0667-8.
- ↑ New Era. Ministry of Information and National Guidance. 1970. p. 18.
- ↑ Mohamed Haji Mukhtar (25 February 2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 43–. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
- ↑ Odenwald, Michael; Hinkel, Harald; Schauer, Elisabeth; Neuner, Frank; Schauer, Maggie; Elbert, Thomas R.; Rockstroh, Brigitte (2007). "The Consumption of Khat and Other Drugs in Somali Combatants: A Cross-Sectional Study". PLOS Medicine. 4 (12): e341. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040341 . PMC 2121109 . PMID 18076280.
- ↑ "Somali fighters destroying shrines". Al Jazeera English. 2008-12-20. Retrieved 2017-01-26.
- ↑ Ken Menkhaus (5 November 2013). Somalia: State Collapse and the Threat of Terrorism. Routledge. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-1-136-04992-7.
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