Common eland

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Common eland
Taurotragus oryx - young bull - Etosha 2015.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Bovinae
Genus: Taurotragus
Species:
T. oryx
Binomial name
Taurotragus oryx
(Pallas, 1766)
Subspecies
  • T. o. livingstonii
  • T. o. oryx
  • T. o. pattersonianus
Common eland.png
Common eland range
Synonyms
Species synonymy [2]
  • Tragelaphus oryx(Pallas, 1766)
  • Taurotragus alces(Oken, 1816)
  • Taurotragus canna(C. H. Smith, 1827)
  • Taurotragus barbatus(Kerr, 1792)
  • Taurotragus oreas(Pallas, 1777)
  • Taurotragus typicusSelous, 1899
  • Taurotragus livingstonei(P. L. Sclater, 1864)
  • Taurotragus billingaeKershaw, 1923
  • Taurotragus kaufmanni(Matschie, 1912)
  • Taurotragus niediecki(Matschie, 1913)
  • Taurotragus selousi Lydekker, 1910
  • Taurotragus triangularis(Günther, 1889)
  • Taurotragus pattersonianusLydekker, 1906
Two common elands drinking in a Chudop waterhole, Etosha National Park, Namibia. Taurotragus oryx.jpg
Two common elands drinking in a Chudop waterhole, Etosha National Park, Namibia.

The common eland (Taurotragus oryx), also known as the southern eland or eland antelope, is a large-sized savannah and plains antelope found in East and Southern Africa. An adult male is around 1.6 m (5.2 ft) tall at the shoulder (females are 20 cm (7.9 in) shorter) and can weigh up to 942 kg (2,077 lb) with a typical range of 500–600 kg (1,100–1,300 lb), 340–445 kg (750–981 lb) for females).

Contents

It is the second-largest antelope in the world, being slightly smaller on average than the giant eland. [3] It was scientifically described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1766.

Mainly a herbivore, its diet is primarily grasses and leaves. Common elands form herds of up to 500 animals, but are not territorial. The common eland prefers habitats with a wide variety of flowering plants such as savannah, woodlands, and open and montane grasslands; it avoids dense forests. It uses loud barks, visual and postural movements, and the flehmen response to communicate and warn others of danger. The common eland is used by humans for leather, and meat and has been domesticated in southern Africa. Eland milk contains more butterfat than cow's milk, and can keep longer without pasteurising.[ citation needed ]

It is native to Angola, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, but is no longer present in Burundi. While the common eland's population is decreasing, it is classified as of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Etymology

The scientific name of the common eland is Taurotragus oryx, composed of three words: tauros, tragos, and oryx. Tauros is Greek for a bull or bullock, meaning the same as the Latin taurus. [4] Tragos is Greek for a male goat, referring to the tuft of hair that grows in the eland's ear and its resemblance to a goat's beard. [5] Oryx is Latin and Greek (genitive: orygos) for pickaxe, referring to the pointed horns of North African antelopes like the common eland and scimitar-horned oryx. [6]

The name "eland" is Afrikaans for "elk" or "moose", [7] from Dutch eland, from obsolete German Elend, probably from obsolete Lithuanian ellenis. [8] [9] When Dutch settlers came to the Cape of Good Hope, creating the Dutch Cape Colony, they named the animal after the large, herbivorous moose. In Dutch, the animal is called "eland antelope" to distinguish it from the moose, which is found in the northern boreal forests. [7]

Physical description

Common elands are spiral-horned antelopes. They are sexually dimorphic, with females being smaller than the males. [10] Females weigh 300–600 kg (660–1,320 lb), measure 200–280 cm (79–110 in) from the snout to the base of the tail and stand 125–153 cm (49–60 in) at the shoulder. Bulls weigh 400–942 kg (882–2,077 lb), [11] are 240–345 cm (94–136 in) from the snout to the base of the tail and stand 150–183 cm (59–72 in) at the shoulder. The tail is 50–90 cm (20–35 in) long. [3] Male elands can weigh up to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). [12]

Skeleton of common eland Eland skeleton at MAV-USP.jpg
Skeleton of common eland

Their coat differs geographically, with elands in northern part of their range having distinctive markings (torso stripes, markings on legs, dark garters and a spinal crest) that are absent in the south. [13] Apart from a rough mane, the coat is smooth. Females have a tan coat, while the coats of males are darker, with a bluish-grey tinge. Bulls may also have a series of vertical white stripes on their sides (mainly in parts of the Karoo in South Africa). As males age, their coat becomes more grey. Males also have dense fur on their foreheads and a large dewlap on their throats. [3]

Both sexes have horns with a steady spiral ridge (resembling that of the bushbuck). The horns are visible as small buds in newborns and grow rapidly during the first seven months. [14] The horns of males are thicker and shorter than those of females (males' horns are 43–66 cm (17–26 in) long and females' are 51–69 cm (20–27 in) long), and have a tighter spiral. Males use their horns during rutting season to wrestle and butt heads with rivals, while females use their horns to protect their young from predators. [3]

The common eland is the slowest antelope, with a peak speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) that tires them quickly. However, they can maintain a 22 km/h (14 mph) trot indefinitely. Elands are capable of jumping up to 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) from a standing start when startled [13] (up to 3 m (9.8 ft) for young elands). [3] The common eland's life expectancy is generally between 15 and 20 years; in captivity, some live up to 25 years. [3]

Eland herds are accompanied by a loud clicking sound that has been subject to considerable speculation. The weight of the animal may cause the two halves of its hooves to splay apart, and the clicking is the result of the hoof snapping together when the animal raises its leg. [15] The sound carries some distance from a herd, and may be a form of communication. [12]

Taxonomy

Phylogenetic relationships of the mountain nyala from combined analysis of all molecular data (Willows-Munro et.al. 2005)

The common eland was first described in 1766 by German zoologist and botanist Peter Simon Pallas. It belongs to the order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, and subfamily Bovinae. [16] Common elands are sometimes considered part of the genus Tragelaphus on the basis of molecular phylogenetics, but are usually categorized as Taurotragus , along with the giant eland (T. derbianus). [3]

Subspecies

Three subspecies of common elands have been recognized, though their validity has been disputed. [1] [2] [3] [10] [14]

Found by and named after John Henry Patterson, who describes the specimen in The Man-eaters of Tsavo (1907). [17]

Genetics and evolution

Male elands have 31 diploid chromosomes and females have 32. The male (Y) chromosome has been translocated to the short arm of an autosome. [3] Both the X chromosome and Y chromosome replicate late; they do not match well and are variable. The chromosomes resemble those of the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros). [18]

Male elands and female greater kudus can produce a viable male hybrid, though whether it is sterile is unknown. An accidental crossing of an East African common eland (T. o. pattersonianus') with an East African kudu (T. s. bea) occurred in the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. This was believed to be due to the absence of male kudus in the herd. The hybrid produced was sterile. The study confirmed the chromosome numbers of both the eland and the kudu and the strangeness of their attached Y chromosomes. Attempt matings of male elands with domestic (Bos primigenius) and zebu cows (Bos indicus) indicated the species are not able to interbreed. [19] Female elands have acted as surrogates for bongos. [3]

The Bovidae family ancestors of the common eland arose approximately 20 million years ago in Africa; fossils are found throughout Africa and France, but the best records are in sub-Saharan Africa. The first members of the tribe Tragelaphini appear six million years ago during the late Miocene. An extinct ancestor of the common eland (Taurotragus arkelli) appears in the Pleistocene in northern Tanzania and the first T. oryx fossil appears in the Holocene in Algeria. [3]

In 2010, a genetic study was made basing on the evolutionary history of common elands. Using material from East and Southern Africa, analysis of mitochondrial DNA control-region fragments from 122 individuals revealed information concerning the phylogeography, genetic diversity, and demographic history of the species. The conclusions supported the presence of a long-standing population in the southern Africa and a mosaic of Pleistocene refugia in eastern Africa. The similarity of dates obtained from other studies indicates a significant genetic event around 200 ka. [20]

Habitat and distribution

Common elands at Cape of Good Hope, South Africa Common elands at Cape of Good Hope 01.jpg
Common elands at Cape of Good Hope, South Africa

Common elands live on the open plains of Southern Africa and along the foothills of the great southern African plateau. The species extends north into Ethiopia and most arid zones of South Sudan, west into eastern Angola and Namibia, and south to South Africa. However, a low density of elands exists in Africa due to poaching and human settlement.

Elands prefer to live in semiarid areas that contain many shrub-like bushes, and often inhabit grasslands, woodlands, subdesert, bush, and mountaintops with altitudes of about 15,000 ft (4,600 m). [21] Elands do, however, avoid forests, swamps and deserts. The places inhabited by elands generally contain Acacia , Combretum , Commiphora , Diospyros , Grewia , Rhus , and Ziziphus trees and shrubs; some of these also serve as their food.

Eland can be found in many national parks and reserves today, including Nairobi National Park and Tsavo East National Park, Tsavo West National Park, Masai Mara National Reserve, (Kenya); Serengeti National Park, Ruaha National Park and Tarangire National Park, Ngorongoro Crater, (Tanzania); Kagera National Park (Rwanda); Nyika National Park (Malawi); Lake Mburo National Park (Uganda); Kidepo Valley National Park (Uganda); Luangwa Valley and Kafue National Park (Zambia); Hwange National Park, Matobo National Park, Tuli Safari Area and Chimanimani Eland Sanctuary (Zimbabwe); Kruger National Park, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Giant's Castle and Suikerbosrand NR (South Africa). [22]

They live on home ranges that can be 200–400 km2 for females and juveniles and 50 km2 for males. [23] [24]

Ecology and behavior

Common elands resting in herds Taurotragus oryx (herd).jpg
Common elands resting in herds

Common elands are nomadic and crepuscular. They eat in the morning and evening, rest in shade when hot, and remain in sunlight when cold. They are commonly found in herds numbering up to 500, with individual members remaining in the herd from several hours to several months. Juveniles and mothers tend to form larger herds, while males may separate into smaller groups or wander individually. During estrus, mainly in the rainy season, groups tend to form more regularly. [3] In Southern Africa, common elands will often associate with herds of zebras, roan antelopes and oryxes. [25]

Common elands communicate via gestures, vocalizations, scent cues, and display behaviors. The flehmen response also occurs, primarily in males in response to contact with female urine or genitals. Females urinate to indicate fertility during the appropriate phase of their estrous cycle, as well as to indicate their lack of fertility when harassed by males. [3] If eland bulls find any of their predators nearby, they bark and attempt to attract the attention of others by trotting back and forth until the entire herd is conscious of the danger. [25] Some of their main predators include lions, African wild dogs, cheetahs, and spotted hyenas. Eland calves are more vulnerable than adults to their predators. [3]

Diet

Elands are mainly grazers. Elands Thoiry 19802.jpg
Elands are mainly grazers.

Common elands are herbivores that browse during drier winter, but have also adapted to grazing during the rainy season when grasses are more common and nutritious. [3] They require a high-protein diet of succulent leaves from flowering plants, but will consume lower-quality plant material if available, including forbs, trees, shrubs, grasses, seeds, and tubers. [3] [21] [24] Grasses that elands eat include Setaria and Themeda and fruits from Securinega and Strychnos . Large antelope can survive on lower-quality food in times of little rain.

Most of their water is obtained from their food, though they drink water when available. [3] As they quickly adjust to the surroundings due to seasonal changes and other causes, they change their feeding habits. They also use their horns to break off branches that are hard to reach. [26]

Thermoregulation

Common elands have several thermoregulatory adaptations to help them withstand the extreme temperatures of their environments. Using peripheral thermal receptors on the skin, elands can sense heat and increase or decrease evaporative cooling accordingly. [27] On sunnier days, common elands maintain a cooler skin temperature relative to their inner body temperature. [27] Elands achieve cooler skin temperatures by increasing cutaneous evaporation. This allows them to feel cooler, even though their internal body temperature stays relatively the same throughout the day. The eland can also conserve water by increasing its body temperature. [28] When temperatures rise above a certain threshold, an increase in sweating and panting is also observed. [27] Common elands use their sparse fur coats to dissipate excess heat via reradiation. [27] The dewlap is also believed to play a role in thermoregulation. [29] Due to its high surface area to volume ratio, it may allow for efficient thermoregulation in larger common elands with larger dewlaps. [29]

Sociability and reproduction

Two male elands fighting over dominance, Knowsley Safari Park Aa knowsley 2elandsfighting.jpg
Two male elands fighting over dominance, Knowsley Safari Park

Females are sexually mature at 15 to 36 months and males at 4 to 5 years. Mating may occur anytime after reaching sexual maturity, but is mostly seen in the rainy season. In Zambia, young are born in July and August, while elsewhere this is the mating season. [21] Mating begins when elands gather to feed on lush, green plains with plentiful grass, and some males and females start mating with each other in separate pairs. Males chase the females to find out if they are in estrus. They also test the female's urine. Usually, a female chooses the most dominant and fit male to mate with. Sometimes, she runs away from males trying to mate, causing more attraction. This results in fights between males, in which their hard horns are used. A female allows a male to mount after two to four hours. Males usually keep close contact with females in the mating period. [24] The dominant male can mate with more than one female. [21] Females have a gestation period of nine months, and give birth to only one calf each time. [30]

Males, females, and juveniles each form separate social groups. The male groups are the smallest; the members stay together and search for food or water sources. The female group is much larger and covers greater areas. [21] They travel the grassy plains in wet periods and prefer bushy areas in dry periods. Females have a complex linear hierarchy. The nursery and juvenile group is naturally formed when females give birth to calves. After about 24 hours of the delivery, the mother and calf join this group. The calves start befriending each other and stay back in the nursery group, while the mother returns to the female group. The calves leave the nursery group when they are at least two years old and join a male or female group. [30]

Diseases and parasites

Common elands are resistant to trypanosomiasis, a protozoan infection that has the tsetse fly as a vector, but not to the Rhipicephalus -transmitted disease theileriosis. The disease-causing bacterium Theileria taurotragi has caused many eland deaths. Clostridium chauvoei , another bacterium, can be harmful, as well. Elands are also hosts to several kinds of ticks. In one study, an eland was found to be host to the Amblyomma species A. gemma and A. variegatum, and Rhipicephalus species R. decoloratus, R. appendiculatus, R. evertsi, R. pulchellus and R. pravus. Elands produce antibodies for Brucella bacteria, but none for Mycobacterium paratuberculosis or various types of pneumonia like contagious bovine pneumonia and contagious caprine pneumonia, normally infectious in cows or antelopes. [3]

Interaction with humans

Conservation

Common eland in a zoo in Krakow, Poland Taurotragus.oryx-01-Krakow.jpg
Common eland in a zoo in Kraków, Poland

Currently, common elands are not endangered. They are conserved by the United States Endangered Species Act, and regulated in international trade by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. [31] Using ground counts and aerial surveys, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) calculates the population density of the common eland to be between 0.05 and 1 per square kilometre with a total population estimate of 136,000. [32] Populations are considered stable or increasing in the countries of Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Malawi, Kenya and Tanzania.

The population is, however, gradually decreasing due to habitat loss, caused by expanding human settlements and poaching for its superior meat. [33] As they are docile and inactive most of the time, they can easily be killed. [34] The species became extinct in Eswatini [2] and Zimbabwe, [24] but has been reintroduced.

The IUCN states that about half of the estimated total population lives in protected areas and 30% on private land. Protected areas that support major populations include Omo (Ethiopia), Serengeti, Katavi, Ruaha, and Selous-Kilombero (Tanzania), Kafue and North Luangwa (Zambia), Nyika (Malawi), Etosha (Namibia), Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana/South Africa) and Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park (South Africa). [1] Most of these populations appear to be stable. Relatively large numbers of common elands now live on private land, particularly in Namibia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, reflecting its value as a trophy animal. Common elands have also been widely domesticated in Zimbabwe, South Africa. [35] [36]

Uses

A common eland being skinned for its leather. Skinningeland.png
A common eland being skinned for its leather.
Tame elands Tame Eland - panoramio.jpg
Tame elands
Coat of arms of Grootfontein, Namibia Grootfontein COA.svg
Coat of arms of Grootfontein, Namibia

The common eland is sometimes farmed and hunted for its meat, and in some cases can be better used than cattle because it is more suited to African climates. This has led to some Southern African farmers switching from cattle to eland. Common elands are also pictured as supporters in the coat of arms of Grootfontein, Namibia.

Husbandry

Common elands have a mild temperament and have been successfully domesticated for meat and milk production in South Africa and Russia. [26] Their need for water is quite low because they produce urine with a high urea content, but they require a substantial grazing area, along with salt licks and large amounts of supplementary feed such as maize, sorghum, melons, and beans, which can be expensive. A female can produce up to 7 kg (15 lb) of milk per day that is richer in milkfat than cow milk. The pleasant-tasting milk has a butterfat content of 11-17% and can be stored for up to eight months if properly prepared, versus several days for cow milk. [3]

Housing common elands is difficult due to their ability to jump over fences as high as 3 m (9.8 ft) or simply break through using their substantial mass. Sometimes, wild elands break through enclosures to mix with domesticated ones. Common elands can reproduce in captivity, but calf survival is low and the young may need to be separated from their mothers to ensure health and adequate feeding. [3] Husbandry requires care because the generally placid animals startle easily and require large amounts of space. [10]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bongo (antelope)</span> Species of mammal

The bongo is a large, mostly nocturnal, forest-dwelling antelope, native to sub-Saharan Africa. Bongos are characterised by a striking reddish-brown coat, black and white markings, white-yellow stripes, and long slightly spiralled horns. It is the only tragelaphid in which both sexes have horns. Bongos have a complex social interaction and are found in African dense forest mosaics. They are the third-largest antelope in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antelope</span> Term referring to an even-toed ruminant

The term antelope refers to numerous extant or recently extinct species of the ruminant artiodactyl family Bovidae that are indigenous to most of Africa, India, the Middle East, Central Asia, and a small area of Eastern Europe. Antelopes do not form a monophyletic group, as some antelopes are more closely related to other bovid groups, like bovines, goats, and sheep, than to other antelopes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bovinae</span> Subfamily of mammals

Bovines comprise a diverse group of 10 genera of medium to large-sized ungulates, including cattle, bison, African buffalo, water buffalos, and the four-horned and spiral-horned antelopes. The evolutionary relationship between the members of the group is still debated, and their classification into loose tribes rather than formal subgroups reflects this uncertainty. General characteristics include cloven hooves and usually at least one of the sexes of a species having true horns. The largest extant bovine is the gaur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nyala</span> Species of antelope

The lowland nyala or simply nyala is a spiral-horned artiodactyl antelope native to Southern Africa. The species is part of the family Bovidae and the genus Tragelaphus. It was first described in 1849 by George French Angas and exhibits the highest sexual dimorphism among the spiral-horned antelopes. It is not to be confused with the endangered mountain nyala living in the Bale region of Ethiopia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kudu</span> Two species of antelope of the genus Tragelaphus

The kudus are two species of antelope of the genus Tragelaphus:

<i>Tragelaphus</i> Genus of mammals

Tragelaphus is a genus of medium-to-large-sized spiral-horned antelopes. It contains several species of bovines, all of which are relatively antelope-like. Species in this genus tend to be large in size and lightly built, and have long necks and considerable sexual dimorphism. Elands, including the common eland, are embedded within this genus, meaning that Taurotragus must be subsumed into Tragelaphus to avoid paraphyly. Alternatively, Taurotragus could be maintained as a separate genus, if the nyala and the lesser kudu are relocated to their own monospecific genera, respectively Nyala and Ammelaphus. Other generic synonyms include Strepsiceros and Boocercus. The name "Tragelaphus" comes from the mythical tragelaph.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sitatunga</span> Species of swamp-dwelling antelope

The sitatunga or marshbuck is a swamp-dwelling medium-sized antelope found throughout central Africa, centering on the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, parts of Southern Sudan, Equatorial Guinea, Burundi, Ghana, Botswana, Rwanda, Zambia, Gabon, the Central African Republic, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. The sitatunga is mostly confined to swampy and marshy habitats. Here they occur in tall and dense vegetation as well as seasonal swamps, marshy clearings in forests, riparian thickets and mangrove swamps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mountain nyala</span> Species of antelope

The mountain nyala or balbok, is a large antelope found in high altitude woodlands in a small part of central Ethiopia. It is a monotypic species first described by English naturalist Richard Lydekker in 1910. The males are typically 120–135 cm (47–53 in) tall while females stand 90–100 cm (35–39 in) at the shoulder. Males weigh 180–300 kg (400–660 lb) and females weigh 150–200 kg (330–440 lb). The coat is grey to brown, marked with two to five poorly defined white strips extending from the back to the underside, and a row of six to ten white spots. White markings are present on the face, throat and legs as well. Males have a short dark erect crest, about 10 cm (3.9 in) high, running along the middle of the back. Only males possess horns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lesser kudu</span> Species of antelope

The lesser kudu is a medium-sized bushland antelope found in East Africa. The species is a part of the ungulate genus Tragelaphus, along with several other related species of striped, spiral-horned African bovids, including the related greater kudu, the bongo, bushbuck, common and giant elands, nyala and sitatunga. It was first scientifically described by English zoologist Edward Blyth (1869).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater kudu</span> Species of woodland antelope

The greater kudu is a large woodland antelope, found throughout eastern and southern Africa. Despite occupying such widespread territory, they are sparsely populated in most areas due to declining habitat, deforestation, and poaching. The greater kudu is one of two species commonly known as kudu, the other being the lesser kudu, T. imberbis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giant eland</span> Species of bovine mammal

The giant eland, also known as the Lord Derby's eland and greater eland, is an open-forest and savanna antelope. A species of the family Bovidae and genus Taurotragus, it was described in 1847 by John Edward Gray. The giant eland is the largest species of antelope, with a body length ranging from 220–290 cm (87–114 in). There are two subspecies: T. d. derbianus and T. d. gigas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scimitar oryx</span> Species of oryx

The scimitar oryx, also known as the scimitar-horned oryx and the Sahara oryx, is an Oryx species that was once widespread across North Africa. In 2000, it was declared extinct in the wild on the IUCN Red List, but in 2023 it was downlisted to endangered. This particular oryx is adapted to harsh desert conditions and can survive for months or even years without drinking water. A grazing animal, it derives most of its daily moisture intake from plants.

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<i>Taurotragus</i> Genus of mammals

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The tribe Tragelaphini, or the spiral-horned antelopes, are bovines that are endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. These include the bushbucks, kudus, and the elands. The scientific name is in reference to the mythical creature the tragelaph, a Chimera with the body of a stag and the head of a goat. They are medium-to-large, tall, long-legged antelopes characterized by their iconic twisted horns and striking pelage coloration patterns.

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References

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  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Pappas, LA; Elaine Anderson; Lui Marnelli; Virginia Hayssen (5 July 2002). "Taurotragus oryx" (PDF). Mammalian Species . 689: 1–5. doi:10.1644/1545-1410(2002)689<0001:TO>2.0.CO;2. S2CID   198968884. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 December 2011.
  4. ↑ "Taurus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Merriam-Webster.
  5. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "Tragos". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  6. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "Oryx". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  7. 1 2 "Common Eland". Tititudorancea.com. 14 October 2010. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
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  10. 1 2 3 Harris, H (April 30, 2010). "Husbandry Guidelines For The Common Eland" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 17, 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
  11. ↑ Kingdon, J (1997). The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-11692-1.
  12. 1 2 "Animal Bytes – Common Eland". Seaworld.org. Archived from the original on 2012-06-19. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
  13. 1 2 Estes, RD (1999). "Bushbuck Tribe". The Safari Companion: A Guide to Watching African Mammals, Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, and Primates. Chelsea Green Publishing. pp.  154. ISBN   978-0-9583223-3-1.
  14. 1 2 Skinner, JD; Chimimba, CT (2005). "Ruminantia". The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.  637–9. ISBN   978-0-521-84418-5.
  15. ↑ Carnaby T (2008). Beat About the Bush: Mammals. Jacana Media. p.  172. ISBN   978-1-77009-240-2.
  16. ↑ "Common eland: Taxonomy". Museumstuff.com. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  17. ↑ Patterson, John Henry (1907). "Chapter XXVII: The Finding of the New Eland". The Man-Eaters of Tsavo, and Other East African Adventures.
  18. ↑ Groves, CP; Grubb P (2011). "Artiodactyla". Ungulate Taxonomy. Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p.  142. ISBN   978-1-4214-0093-8.
  19. ↑ Jorge, W.; Butler, S.; Benirschke, K. (1 January 1976). "Studies on a male eland x kudu hybrid". Reproduction. 46 (1): 13–16. doi: 10.1530/jrf.0.0460013 . PMID   944778.
  20. ↑ Lorenzen, Eline D.; Masembe, Charles; Arctander, Peter; Siegismund, Hans R. (1 March 2010). "A long-standing Pleistocene refugium in southern Africa and a mosaic of refugia in East Africa: insights from mtDNA and the common eland antelope". Journal of Biogeography. 37 (3): 571–581. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02207.x. S2CID   85986567.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 "Taurotragus Oryx:Information". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Animal Diversity Web.
  22. ↑ "Wild Animals of Africa-Common eland". Wackywildlifewonders.com. Archived from the original on 6 January 2011. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  23. ↑ Eline D. Lorezen, Eline D.; Charles Masembe; Peter Arctander; Hans R. Siegismund (2010). "A long‐standing Pleistocene refugium in southern Africa and a mosaic of refugia in East Africa: insights from mtDNA and the common eland antelope". Journal of Biogeography. 37 (3): 571–581. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02207.x. S2CID   85986567.
  24. 1 2 3 4 "The Living Africa: Wildlife – Bovid Family – Common Eland". Library.thinkquest.org. Archived from the original on 2012-02-17. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
  25. 1 2 Burton, RM (2002). "Eland". International wildlife encyclopedia (3rd ed.). New York: Marshall Cavendish. pp.  757–9. ISBN   978-0-7614-7266-7.
  26. 1 2 Rafferty, John P., ed. (2010). "Elands, Antelopes". Grazers (1st ed.). New York, NY: Britannica Educational Pub. pp.  77–8. ISBN   978-1-61530-465-3.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Finch, Va (1972-06-01). "Thermoregulation and heat balance of the East African eland and hartebeest". American Journal of Physiology. Legacy Content. 222 (6): 1374–1379. doi:10.1152/ajplegacy.1972.222.6.1374. ISSN   0002-9513. PMID   5030193.
  28. ↑ Taylor, Cr (1969-07-01). "Metabolism, respiratory changes, and water balance of an antelope, the eland". American Journal of Physiology. Legacy Content. 217 (1): 317–320. doi:10.1152/ajplegacy.1969.217.1.317. ISSN   0002-9513. PMID   5785895.
  29. 1 2 Bro-Jørgensen, Jakob (December 2016). "Evolution of the ungulate dewlap: thermoregulation rather than sexual selection or predator deterrence?". Frontiers in Zoology. 13 (1): 33. doi: 10.1186/s12983-016-0165-x . ISSN   1742-9994. PMC   4949748 . PMID   27437025.
  30. 1 2 "Taurotragus oryx (Common eland)-Ontogeny and Reproduction". Ultimateungulate.com. Archived from the original on 9 January 2011. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  31. ↑ Dolly, Stephanie L.; Stephen Shurter. "Common Eland" (PDF).
  32. ↑ "Population of common elands". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  33. ↑ East, compiled by R. (1990). "Common Eland (Tragelaphus oryx)" (PDF). West and Central Africa. Gland: IUCN. p. 131. ISBN   978-2-8317-0016-8.
  34. ↑ "Ecology and conservation of the eland". Seaworld.org. Archived from the original on 19 June 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  35. ↑ "Conservation status (least concern)". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  36. ↑ East, Rod, ed. (1999). "Common Eland (Conservation status)". African antelope database 1998. Gland, Switzerland: The IUCN Species Survival Commission. p. 139. ISBN   978-2-8317-0477-7.
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