Discovery and settlement of Hawaii

Last updated

There is no definitive date for the Polynesian discovery of Hawaii. However, high-precision radiocarbon dating in Hawaii using chronometric hygiene analysis, and taxonomic identification selection of samples, puts the initial such settlement of the Hawaiian Islands sometime between 940-1250 C.E. [1] , originating from earlier settlements first established in the Society Islands around 1025 to 1120 C.E., [2] [3] [4] and in the Marquesas Islands sometime between 1100 and 1200 C.E. [5] [6] [7]

Contents

Ancient Hawaiian population

1785 etching of Waimea, Kauai at the time of Cook's journey An Inland View in Atooi, One of the Sandwich Islands (1785).jpg
1785 etching of Waimea, Kauai at the time of Cook's journey

There is still controversy about how many Native Hawaiians were living on the islands when Captain James Cook arrived in 1778. The frequently hypothesized model is that population growth was constant until James Cook's arrival, and was then halted by disease, followed by a rapid decrease. This theory relies on a hypothetical settlement date that radiocarbon dating in Hawaii has since refuted, as well as linear growth on the islands. Nevertheless, this theory is still used to support an estimate of between 800,000 and 1,000,000 people in 1778. [8] The constant-population-growth theory of Hawaii has scant support from the archaeological data and is contradicted by paleo-environmental evidence and radiocarbon dating of historical sites. Accordingly the evidence indicates a model of arrested population growth, especially as a consequence of island life. This theory finds corroboration in archaeological censuses of abandoned habitation sites on leeward (southern and western) Hawai'i island and Kaho'olawe Island which indicate that population levels reached a peak before Cook's arrival. [9] The arrested-growth model fits well with an estimated pre-contact-era population of between 200,000 and 250,000, derived primarily from the study of historical records. [10]

Map showing the migration of the Austronesians Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific (per Benton et al, 2012, adapted from Bellwood, 2011).png
Map showing the migration of the Austronesians

Population estimates based on an initial discovery and settlement of Hawaii in around 1150 CE, a proposed growth rate at the highest in the world and reliance on the paleo-environmental evidence of early human impact on the land completely contradict the constant-population-growth theory. Instead the estimated population curve can be divided into three sections: pre-settlement where there were no people, the initial settlement growth phase of approximately 100 people around 1150 CE to the population peak in 1450 of approximately 150,000 people and third phase between 1450 and 1778, which reflected a relatively stable population where apparent declines were followed by periods of growth. [11]

Simply and briefly, as the population grew so did their agricultural imprint (forest clearing by burning) and building of heiau at those sites, as well as the decline of plants. The paleo-environmental data showed that during 1450-1778 the pace of construction of heiau slowed dramatically, as did the clearing of agricultural land. Accordingly the estimated population in 1778 around the time of Cook's arrival was between 110,000 and 150,000. [12]

Eastern contact

Pre-Western contact syphilis

James Cook may not have been the first outsider to visit Hawaii. Diseases to which Hawaiians lacked immunity may well have already been spread. Testing of a young woman's bones buried in O'ahu, radiocarbon dated to sometime between 1422 AD and 1664, indicated that she had congenital syphilis, a disease that can leave a variety of distinctive marks on bone. [13] It has long been surmised that syphilis originated in the American Hemisphere and was imported to Europe when Europeans returned from Columbus's first voyage in 1494, specifically to Naples, Italy, where it was recorded in Europe. That postulation is an established part of the Columbian exchange. However the supposition of an American origin has recently been challenged and is being further evaluated by historians of disease, who argue that its presence in Europe may not have been detected previously. Another possible explanation for syphilis in the pre-Cook era finds reference to traditional Hawaiian accounts of foreign shipwrecks as well as the presence of metal blades seen by James Cook upon landing in Kaua'i, later presumed to be from Japanese sailors. [14] Syphilis was introduced to Japan around 1512 by mariners who had contracted the disease while in China. By 1600 approximately 39.4% of Japanese men had contracted syphilis. [15]

Shipwrecks

Hawaiian tradition does not record the nationalities of the shipwrecks on Maui in Kiwi, Kona in Hawaii or Kauai (legend has it they cohabited and had children with Hawaiians) except to characterize them as white people arriving between years 1521 and 1530 AD. Many scholars, however, believed them to be Spanish. [16] Records of Japanese sailors that were transmitted to their homeland during the Kamakura period state that Japanese boats landed at Makapu'u Point on the island of O'ahu in the year 1258. Further, in 1270, a separate group of Japanese sailors carrying sugar cane went ashore at Kahului, Maui. [17] : 14 

Metal blades seen by James Cook in Kaua'i

There are many parallels between Hawaiian and Japanese cultures; the similarity of Japanese knives to iron blades in the possession of Hawaiians at the time of Cook's first landing at Kaua'i is a prime example. These were thought to have developed through cultural contact, most likely through voyages from Japan to Hawaii in the period 1550–1630 AD. [18] While there is no record of trade between Japan and Hawaii pre-1778, a statistical review of historical shipping and oceanic patterns suggests there may have been as many as a dozen drifts from Japan to Hawaii in the period between 1600 and 1778. [19]

Western contact

King Kamehameha I of Hawaii Kamehameha I.png
King Kamehameha I of Hawaii

Economic and demographic factors in the 18th to 19th centuries reshaped the Kingdom of Hawaii. With unfamiliar diseases such as bubonic plague, leprosy, yellow fever, declining fertility, high infant mortality, infanticide, the introduction of alcohol, and emigration off the islands or to larger cities for trade jobs, the Native Hawaiian population fell from around 150,000 in 1778 to 71,000 by 1853. Faced with depopulation and a changing economy, Kamehameha I and others sought tradesmen, including navigators, blacksmiths, armorers, carpenters, sailmakers, etc. These men could expect to receive a gift of land and one or more native wives if they agreed to stay. [20]

Rapid depopulation

The rapid depopulation of the Hawaiian people is traced to many causes. Missionary William Ellis described deserted villages and abandoned enclosures which he attributed to "the frequent and desolating wars during Kamehameha's reign, the ravages of a pestilence brought in the first instance by foreign vessels, which has twice during the period [1778-1823] swept through the islands; the awful prevalence of infanticide; and the melancholy increase and destructive consequences of depravity and vice." [17] : 19  The Hawaii State Statistician Robert C. Schmitt explained the severe depopulation as a result of declining fertility, high infant mortality, and emigration. [17] : 19 

British explorer James Cook was the first European to establish formal ties with the island in 1778 Captainjamescookportrait.jpg
British explorer James Cook was the first European to establish formal ties with the island in 1778

The Hawaiians' customs and land use system also caused a downward spiral in the population from which after the diseases they could not recover. Firstly, Hawaiians practiced population control with infanticide, abortion, and the like. By one estimate by William Ellis in 1823, nearly two-thirds of babies were killed. [21] It wasn't until 1835 [22] and 1850 [23] respectively that infanticide and abortion became illegal. Secondly, the family unit was centered around a "punahele" or favored child; a firstborn who would inherit the grandparent's property and continue the kupuna kin group. In this system, grandparents were responsible to then feed not only their children, but also their children's children. [21] Further families could simply not accommodate growing unless they were ceded new lands from a kupuna group or applied for new lands with the local konohiki and paid for with renewed acts of submission. During the nineteenth century young adults found other things to do than to go into servitude as a hoa'aina (tenant). [21] Artemas Bishop at Ewa in 1845 stated, "the young people of both sexes are idlers of a most worthless character, and dependent, in most cases, upon others for their daily food. There is scarcely a truly respectable and industrious young person of adult age, among the uneducated classes."

Ultimately the family unit in Hawaiian culture was simply formed more for replacement rather than production. [21]

Whaling industry

Between 1820 and 1845 American commercial involvement in Hawaii surged and so did the whaling industry. Between the first few ships in 1819 by the 1840s there some 400-500 ships which made semi-annual visits to the islands on their way back to New England Ports for provisions, recreation and labor. [24] For instance a census of 1840 in Nantucket, Massachusetts, which was a center of whaling ships, indicates 793 Native Hawaiians had emigrated there alone. [25]

Colonial-era immigration

With fewer natives to work on the sugar plantations and the rapid depopulation from emigration on ships and whalers, recruiters started to fan out across Asia and Europe for more male labor. As a result, between 1850 and 1900 some 200,000 laborers from China, Japan, Korea, Philippines, Portugal, Germany, Norway and elsewhere came to Hawaii under contracts. This greatly diversified the islands. While most left the sugar plantations on schedule, Hawaii was viewed by migrants as a place to earn money rather than settle and raise families (there was only one Chinese woman per seventeen Chinese males). [26] : 202 

In response to the rising immigration, King Kamehameha V established the Board of Immigration to control the importation of foreign labor. Although critical that Chinese male laborers were treated like slaves and whipped, the Hawaiian government asserted that the primary purpose was population reinforcement of the labor force to combat high mortality and depopulation off the islands. [26] : 200  By 1881, however, they were prohibiting immigration of Chinese men altogether for a period because of mistreatment and exploitation. [27]

Despite the ban on immigration, there were still large numbers of Chinese and Japanese who stayed after their contracts ended, creating a small Chinatown in Honolulu. By 1893, Chinese and Japanese male workers represented 51.9% of the population. [26] : 202  Once Hawaii was annexed in 1900, federal law applied and prohibited further Chinese immigration altogether. Koreans immigrated until 1905, and by 1908, a total of 180,000 Japanese workers had already arrived, though no more Japanese were allowed in after that. Ultimately, 50,000 Japanese workers remained permanently. [28] [27] Records from 1852 to 1875 indicate that in total, 56,720 Chinese arrived during that time period, however there were thousands of duplicates in the number of arrival records because of re-entry of those who had left the islands and returned. [26] : 208  The first US census in 1900 put the population of Chinese at 22,296 men and 3,471 females. [26] : 209–210 

Historical population

Estimated Population
Year [12] Population (est.) [12] Notes [12]
400<1,000
115020,000Labor dedicated to Heiau construction begins to increase.

Introduction of agricultural burning to make space for farming.

1450160,000Population hits its peak after a steep exponential increase.
1600150,000Agricultural burning has slowed down and the population has begun to decline.
170096,000
1778128,000Population bounces back.
1805112,000 to 150,000
Official Population Census
Year [29] Population [29] Notes [29]
1831130,313First reliable census is taken 1831-1832.
1835108,579Second missionary census is taken 1835-1836:
185082,000
185373,134
187256,897
187857,985
188480,578
189089,990
1900154,001About 25% Hawaiian/part-Hawaiian; 40% Japanese; 16% Chinese; 12% Portuguese; and about 5% other Caucasian

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hawaii</span> U.S. state

Hawaii is an island state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about 2,000 miles (3,200 km) southwest of the U.S. mainland. It is the only state not on the North American mainland, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only state in the tropics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hawaiian Islands</span> Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean

The Hawaiian Islands are an archipelago of eight major volcanic islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some 1,500 miles from the island of Hawaiʻi in the south to northernmost Kure Atoll. Formerly called the Sandwich Islands by Europeans, the present name for the archipelago is derived from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalākaua</span> King of Hawaii from 1874 to 1891

Kalākaua, sometimes called The Merrie Monarch, was the last king and penultimate monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, reigning from February 12, 1874, until his death in 1891. Succeeding Lunalilo, he was elected to the vacant throne of Hawaiʻi against Queen Emma. Kalākaua had a convivial personality and enjoyed entertaining guests with his singing and ukulele playing. At his coronation and his birthday jubilee, the hula, which had hitherto been banned in public in the kingdom, became a celebration of Hawaiian culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Hawaii</span> Period in Hawaiian history

Ancient Hawaiʻi is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi by Kamehameha the Great. Traditionally, researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadically between 400 and 1100 CE by Polynesian long-distance navigators from the Samoan, Marquesas, and Tahiti islands within what is now French Polynesia. In 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples which suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in about 1219 to 1266.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kamehameha III</span> King of the Hawaiian Islands from 1825 to 1854

Kamehameha III was the third king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name was Keaweaweʻula Kīwalaʻō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweʻula Kīwalaʻō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa Kalani Waiakua Kalanikau Iokikilo Kīwalaʻō i ke kapu Kamehameha when he ascended the throne.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King Kamehameha I Day</span> Public holiday in Hawaii on June 11

King Kamehameha I Day on June 11 is a public holiday in the U.S. state of Hawaii. It honors Kamehameha the Great, the monarch who first established the unified Kingdom of Hawaiʻi—comprising the Hawaiian Islands of Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and Hawaiʻi. In 1883 a statue of King Kamehameha was dedicated in Honolulu by King David Kalākaua. There are duplicates of this statue in Emancipation Hall at the Capitol Visitor Center in Washington, D.C., and in Hilo, island of Hawaiʻi.

The Chinese in Hawaii constitute about 4.7% of the state's population, most of whom (75%) are Cantonese people with ancestors from Zhongshan in Guangdong. This number does not include people of mixed Chinese and Hawaiian descent. If all people with Chinese ancestry in Hawaii are included, they form about 1/3 of Hawaii's entire population. As United States citizens, they are a group of Chinese Americans. A minority of this group have Hakka ancestry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese in Hawaii</span> History of Japanese people in Hawaii

The Japanese in Hawaii are the second largest ethnic group in Hawaii. At their height in 1920, they constituted 43% of Hawaii's population. They now number about 16.7% of the islands' population, according to the 2000 U.S. Census. The U.S. Census categorizes mixed-race individuals separately, so the proportion of people with some Japanese ancestry is likely much larger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuisine of Hawaii</span> Food and drinks from Hawaii

The cuisine of Hawaii incorporates five distinct styles of food, reflecting the diverse food history of settlement and immigration in the Hawaiian Islands.[a]

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sugar plantations in Hawaii</span> Overview of sugarcane production in Hawaii

Sugarcane was introduced to Hawaiʻi by its first inhabitants in approximately 600 AD and was observed by Captain Cook upon arrival in the islands in 1778. Sugar quickly turned into a big business and generated rapid population growth in the islands with 337,000 people immigrating over the span of a century. The sugar grown and processed in Hawaiʻi was shipped primarily to the United States and, in smaller quantities, globally. Sugarcane and pineapple plantations were the largest employers in Hawaiʻi. Today the sugarcane plantations are gone, production having moved to other countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polynesian navigation</span> Methods to navigate the Pacific Ocean

Polynesian navigation or Polynesian wayfinding was used for thousands of years to enable long voyages across thousands of kilometres of the open Pacific Ocean. Polynesians made contact with nearly every island within the vast Polynesian Triangle, using outrigger canoes or double-hulled canoes. The double-hulled canoes were two large hulls, equal in length, and lashed side by side. The space between the paralleled canoes allowed for storage of food, hunting materials, and nets when embarking on long voyages. Polynesian navigators used wayfinding techniques such as the navigation by the stars, and observations of birds, ocean swells, and wind patterns, and relied on a large body of knowledge from oral tradition. This island hopping was a solution to the scarcity of useful resources, such as food, wood, water, and available land, on the small islands in the Pacific Ocean. When an island’s required resources for human survival began to run low, the island's inhabitants used their maritime navigation skills and set sail for new islands. However, as an increasing number of islands in the South Pacific became occupied, and citizenship and national borders became of international importance, this was no longer possible. People thus became trapped on islands with the inability to support them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John William Pitt Kinau</span> Prince of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi (1842–1859)

John William Pitt Kīnaʻu was a prince of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the only surviving son of High Chief William Pitt Leleiohoku I and Ruth Keʻelikōlani. As a descendant of King Kamehameha I, he was chosen to attend the Chiefs' Children's School taught by the American missionary Amos Starr Cooke and his wife, Juliette Montague Cooke, alongside fifteen of his royal cousins. At a young age, he inherited the landholdings of his father and his adoptive grandfather including Huliheʻe Palace, but the prince died under mysterious circumstances before his seventeenth birthday.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hawaiian Kingdom</span> Sovereign state on the Hawaiian Islands from 1795 to 1893

The Hawaiian Kingdom, also known as Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands which existed from 1795 to 1893. It was established during the late 18th century when Hawaiian chief Kamehameha I, from the island of Hawaiʻi, conquered the islands of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi, and unified them under one government. In 1810, the Hawaiian Islands were fully unified when the islands of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau voluntarily joined the Hawaiian Kingdom. Two major dynastic families ruled the kingdom, the House of Kamehameha and the House of Kalākaua.

Most early Asian settlers to the United States went to Hawaii. Most of these early immigrants moved to the islands as laborers to work on the pineapple, coconut, and sugarcane plantations. These early migrants have tended to stay, although a handful returned to their home countries. There has also been recent immigration to Hawaii from more ethnic Asian groups, including Thai, Indian, Indonesian, and Vietnamese.

There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawaii, beginning with Abraham Fornander in the late 19th century and continuing through early archaeological investigations of the mid-20th century. There is no definitive date for the Polynesian discovery of Hawaii. Through the use of more advanced radiocarbon methods, taxonomic identification of samples, and stratigraphic archaeology, during the 2000s the consensus was established that the first arrived in Kauai sometime around 1000 AD, and in Oahu sometime between 1100 AD and 1200 AD. However, with more testing and refined samples, including chronologically tracing settlements in Society Islands and the Marquesas, two archipelagoes which have long been considered to be the immediate source regions for the first Polynesian voyagers to Hawaii, it has been concluded that the settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place around 1219 to 1266 AD, with the paleo-environmental evidence of agriculture indicating the Ancient Hawaiian population to have peaked around 1450 AD around 140,000 to 200,000.

The exact population of the Hawaiian Islands at the time of Captain James Cook's arrival is not known however the large range of estimates from 100,000 to 1,000,000 illustrate the controversial nature of the topic and disagreement over the best methods for calculating it. What is known is that the first voyaging canoes that landed on Hawaiian shores during the discovery and settlement of Hawaii cannot have carried more than a hundred people, and perhaps even fewer. For the purposes of this article, "ancient" Hawaii is defined as the period beginning with the first arrival of human settlers, around AD 1100, and ending with their initial contact with the first Western visitors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalākaua's 1881 world tour</span> Tour by King Kalākaua of the Hawaiian Kingdom

The 1881 world tour of King Kalākaua of the Hawaiian Kingdom was his attempt to save the Hawaiian culture and population from extinction by importing a labor force from Asia-Pacific nations. His efforts brought the small island nation to the attention of world leaders, but sparked rumors that the kingdom was for sale. Critics in Hawaii believed the labor negotiations were just an excuse to see the world. The 281-day trip gave Kalākaua the distinction of being the first monarch to circumnavigate the globe; his 1874 travels had made him the first reigning monarch to visit the United States and the first honoree of a state dinner at the White House.

Francis Funk or Franz Funk was a lawyer, politician, sheriff, and military officer of the Kingdom of Hawaii. He held the rank of Major and served as the Akukana Kenela or Adjutant General of the Hawaiian Army during the reign of King Kamehameha III.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bibliography of Kalākaua</span>

Kalākaua was the last king and penultimate monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. The inherited position of the kingdom's monarch became a legislatively elected office with Lunalilo. Upon Lunalilo's death, Kalākaua won election over his political opponent Queen Emma. He reigned from February 12, 1874, until his death in San Francisco, California, on January 20, 1891.

Colonial epidemic disease in Hawaii has greatly threatened the Native Hawaiian population since its introduction to the islands over a hundred years ago. Beginning with the first colonizers led by Captain James Cook that arrived in the islands in 1778, all the way up until today, foreign disease has been present in Native Hawaiians. As Hawaii was so secluded and contained a population of only the Hawaiian people, the islands were considered a "virgin population." This meant that once foreigners arrived, the Native Hawaiian population was decimated by these illnesses while Europeans remained healthy. Some of these diseases included gonorrhea, syphilis, influenza, cholera, tuberculosis, the mumps, measles, smallpox, and leprosy. While each disease brought a different outcome, they all contributed to the reduction of the Native Hawaiian population as they collectively caused more than 100,000 deaths.

References

  1. ↑ Athens, Rieth, & Dye (2014) "A Paleoenvironmental and Archaeological Model-Based Age Estimate for the Colonization of Hawai'i," American Antiquity 79(1): 144-155
  2. ↑ Wilmshurst, Janet M.; Hunt, Terry L.; Lipo, Carl P.; Anderson, Atholl J. (2011). "High-precision radiocarbon dating shows recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Polynesia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (5): 1815–1820. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1015876108 . PMC   3033267 . PMID   21187404.
  3. ↑ Burney, David A.; Kikuchi, William K. Pila (April 2006). "A Millennium of Human Activity at Makauwahi Cave, Māhāūulepū, Kauaūi". Human Ecology. 34 (2): 219–247. doi:10.1007/s10745-006-9015-3. S2CID   84458184.
  4. ↑ Burney, David A.; James, Helen F.; Burney, Lida Pigott; Olson, Storrs L.; Kikuchi, William; Wagner, Warren L.; Burney, Mara; McCloskey, Deirdre; Kikuchi, Delores; Grady, Frederick V.; Gage, Reginald; Nishek, Robert (November 2001). "Fossil Evidence for a Diverse Biota from Kaua'i and its Transformation Since Human Arrival". Ecological Monographs. 71 (4): 615–641. doi:10.1890/0012-9615(2001)071[0615:FEFADB]2.0.CO;2.
  5. ↑ Anderson, Atholl; Clark, Geoffrey; Conte, Eric; Sinoto, Yosikiko; Petchey, Fiona (2000). "Renewed Excavations at Motu Paeao, Maupiti Island, French Polynesia: Preliminary Results". New Zealand Journal of Archaeology. 21: 47–66. hdl:1885/62558.
  6. ↑ Anderson, Atholl; Leach, Helen; Smith, Ian; Walter, Richard (April 1994). "Reconsideration of the Marquesan sequence in East Polynesian prehistory, with particular reference to Hane (MUH1)". Archaeology in Oceania. 29 (1): 29–52. doi:10.1002/arco.1994.29.1.29. JSTOR   40386980.
  7. ↑ Conte, Eric; Anderson, Atholl (2003). "Radiocarbon Ages for Two Sites on Ua Huka, Marquesas". Asian Perspectives. 42 (1): 155–160. doi:10.1353/asi.2003.0018. hdl: 10125/17184 . JSTOR   42929209. Gale   A104362981 Project MUSE   42533 ProQuest   199455609.
  8. ↑ David E. Stannard, Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai'i on the Eve of Western Contact (Honolulu: Social Science Research Institute, U of Hawaii, 1989) 66-67g
  9. ↑ The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 28 (1994)
  10. ↑ Robert C. Schmitt and Lynn Y. S. Zane, "How Many People Have Ever Lived in Hawaii?," unpublished typescript (Honolulu: Hawai'i State Department of Business and Economic Development Library, 1977);
  11. ↑ Goldstein, Eleanor C. (1990). Population. SIRS. ISBN   978-0-89777-117-7. OCLC   23656634.[ page needed ]
  12. 1 2 3 4 Dye, Tom (1994). "Population Trends in Hawai'i Before 1778". Hawaiian Journal of History. 28. hdl: 10524/482 .
  13. ↑ Bertell D. Davis, Archaeological and Paleontological Investigations at the Proposed HECO Barbers Point Generating Station, Honouliuli, 'Ewa, O'ahu (Honolulu: International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., 1990).
  14. ↑ Fornander, An Account of the Polynesian Race 106-7
  15. ↑ Takao Suzuki, Palaeopathological and Palaeoepidemiological Study of Osseous Syphilis in Skulls of the Edo Period, Bulletin no. 23 (Tokyo: University Museum, U of Tokyo, 1984).
  16. ↑ Fornander, An Account of the Polynesian Race 106-7
  17. 1 2 3 The Peopling of Hawaii, by Eleanor C. Nordyke
  18. ↑ John F. G. Stokes, "Japanese Cultural Influences in Hawaii", Proceedings of the 5th Pacific Science Congress (1934): 2792–2800
  19. ↑ Braden, Wythe E. (1976). "On the Probability of Pre-1778 Japanese Drifts to Hawaii". Hawaiian Journal of History. 10. hdl:10524/584.
  20. ↑ book:Colonizing Hawai'i: The Cultural Power of Law by Sally Engle Merry
  21. 1 2 3 4 Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii, Volume 1, by Patrick Vinton Kirch pg 200-201
  22. ↑ Schmitt, Robert C. (1974). "Population Policy in Hawaii". Hawaiian Journal of History. 8. hdl: 10524/195 .
  23. ↑ The Penal Code of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Compiled from the Penal Code of 1850 Archived 2022-01-21 at the Wayback Machine , Chapter XII. Causing Abortion—Concealing the Death of an Infant, Honolulu: Government Press, 1869, page 19 (pdf page 63)
  24. ↑ The History and Immigration of Asian Americans By Franklin Ng page 160
  25. ↑ Lebo, Susan (Winter 2007). "Native Hawaiian Walers in Nantucket, 1820–60". Historic Nantucket. Vol. 56, no. 1. pp. 14–16.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 Nordyke, Eleanor C.; Lee, Richard K. C. (1989). "Chinese in Hawai'i: A Historical and Demographic Perspective". Hawaiian Journal of History. 23. hdl: 10524/318 .
  27. 1 2 Ronald T. Takaki (1984). Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii, 1835-1920 . University of Hawaii Press. pp.  22–27.
  28. ↑ Edward D. Beechert, Working in Hawaii: A Labor History (U of Hawaii Press, 1985)
  29. 1 2 3 Schmitt, Robert C. (1971). "New Estimates of the Pre-Censal Population of Hawaii". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 80 (2): 237–243. JSTOR   20704774.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.