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The Early Pandyas were one of the dynasties that ruled the ancient Tamil country from the pre-Christian era to about 200 CE. Most of the information about the administration and government under the early Pandyas comes to use through Sangam literature.
The head of the Government was the king, a hereditary monarch, who ruled with unaided discretion. [1] The ascension to the throne was normally hereditary, sometimes through usurpation and occasionally based on unusual methods of choosing a king such as sending out the royal elephant to select a person of its choice by garlanding them. The king could be crowned at any age and reigned as long as he chose to or lived. He was highly revered by his subjects and was even equated to God. The king, in turn, had onerous duties towards his subjects and was held responsible for any misfortune that befell them. [2] The dynastic emblem of the Pandyas was the double carp, which was used for all official purposes of royal authentication. Coins issued by the kings, seals on letters as well as exported and imported cargo stocked in the ware houses at ports bore this emblem. [3]
The king's court consisted of royal officers like the ministers, generals, commanders and accountants. His power was restricted by the Aimberunguzhu (Tamil: ஐம்பெருங்குழு) or the Five Great Assemblies. [4] [5] [6] They consisted of the representatives of the people, priests, physicians, astrologers and the ministers. The council of representatives (Maasanam, Tamil: மாசனம்) safeguarded the rights and privileges of the people; the priests (Paarpar, Tamil: பார்ப்பார்) directed all religious ceremonies; the physicians (Maruthar, Tamil: மருத்தர்) attended to all matters affecting the health of the king and his subjects; the astrologers (Nimithar, Tamil: நிமித்தர்) fixed auspicious times for public ceremonies and predicted important events; the ministers (Amaichar, Tamil: அமைச்சர்) attended to the collection of revenue and expenditure and also the administration of justice. [7] There was another assembly of officials that served the king called the Enberaayam (Tamil: எண்பேராயம்) or the Eight Groups of Attendants. While some scholars believe it consisted of attendants on the king's person [7] like the perfumers, dressing valets, etc., others believe it consisted of more important persons like the people of the capital city, the leaders of the elephant corps and of the cavalry. [8] The principal officers of State were the high priest, the chief astrologer, the ministers and the commanders of the army.
The king divided his territory into a number of administrative units, each called a Koorram (Tamil: கூற்றம்). It was further divided into provinces called Mandalam, which in turn was divided into many sub-provinces called Nadus, with each Nadu consisting of many villages. [9] A locality inside a town or village was called Ur and each neighborhood inside an Ur was called a Cheri. [10] While the king ruled over his entire territory from the capital, he often placed one or more principalities (Koorram) under the near-sovereign government of some senior member of the royal family or a feudatary. The Cilappatikaram mentions that while Nedunj Cheliyan I ruled from Madurai, his younger brother was placed in charge of the Korkai principality. [11] The villages that come under a principality, were each governed by the elders in the respective villages, almost autonomously. This arrangement can be roughly equated to a central government (the king), under which operated a set of feudal governments (the principalities), which in turn oversaw the local governments (the villages). [12]
Madurai, the capital city from which the king ran the central government, was large, populous and prosperous. It had a simple police and sanitation system wherein the watchmen walked the streets, lamp in hand. The streets were kept clean by fresh sand being laid, thereon. Separate cheris existed for different sections of the society like the priests, merchants etc. Hospitals and educational institutions were set up by royal order or the philanthropy of the wealthy. [10]
The village was the most fundamental unit of administration under the Pandyas. The affairs of a village were the responsibility of its elders, who were not elected but were recognized and appointed based on their age and status in society. [10] There were two institutions for managing the affairs of a village – Ambalam and Manram, the only difference between the two being the locations from which they operated. The Manram or Podiyil was a simple structure around the foot of a tree in the centre of the village, while the Ambalam or Avai was a small building on a slightly raised platform. [13] The functions of these institutions were judicial, administrative and financial – they looked after the police duties, hearing and settling disputes, justice, sanitation, communicating royal orders, land surveys, revenue assessment and maintenance of roads and irrigation facilities. [14] Only the transmission of locally collected taxes to the royal coffers was left to the king's revenue officers. [13]
Justice was administered free of charge, by special officers appointed as judges and magistrates, but the king was supreme and the final arbiter in all civil and criminal cases. [4] The monarchs prided themselves on the justness of their government. The Cilapatikaram mentions a Pandyan king who died of remorse on realizing his guilt of injustice. [15] The officers appointed as judges were expected to be learned, straightforward, experienced and aged. [16] Mortgage, lease, trust property, loans, breach of contract were some common sources of civil litigation, which had no time bar. [15] Theft, adultery, forgery and treason were some types of criminal offences. [17] [18]
In the capital city, dispensation of justice was organized by the king in his own court, while in the villages, it was the elders that meted out justice. The committees of justice in the village assemblies were the Nyayattars and they met under ceremonial trees to conduct the trial and pronounce judgements. Trials were mostly characterized by elaborate judicial procedure, setting down of evidence and judgement. However, there have been instances where the trial-by-ordeal system was practiced, in which the defendant was put through some form of torture and if he escaped unscathed, he was deemed innocent. [16] [19]
The punishments were very severe and hence crimes were rare: one caught in the act of burglary, adultery or spying was given the death penalty and one giving false testimony would have his tongue cut off. [4] [20] [21] Prisons were used to hold not only the guilty but also captives taken in war. Prisoners were chained and were watched over by warders. [22] [23] It was common practice to release prisoners on festive occasions and in some cases, they were asked to go into sea for pearl-fishing. [24]
The king was the chief commander of the army and usually led his army in the battlefield. The military was said to be fourfold : the infantry, the cavalry, the elephantry and the chariotry. A wide variety of war weapons filled the military arsenal including shields, swords, spears, tridents, maces, bows and arrows. [25] A successful war could lead to annexation of territories or the submission of the enemy, who would then recognize the hegemony of the victor and start paying tributes.[ citation needed ]
Battles of this age were of two kinds – those fought in the open and those fought around a fort under siege. The Maduraikanci gives a vivid picture of the sophisticated defence mechanism that was in place to protect the fort of Madurai during siege warfare. There were four gates to the fort surmounted by high towers, with massive walls built of rough-hewn stone. Surrounding the fort on its outside was a deep moat and around the moat was a thick jungle of thorny trees. The roads leading to the gates of the fort were wide enough to permit several elephants to pass abreast. There were all kinds of weapons and missiles concealed on the walls on both the sides of the entrance, ready to be discharged on an enemy. [26] Many curious engines were mounted on the battlements to shoot arrows or to fling stones on those that besiege them. There were machines like the fishing rod and angle to catch and drag up those that approach the wall and machines like iron fingers to seize and tear them to pieces. There were also furnaces from which hot oil and molten metal might be poured on those that attempt to scale the wall and iron spokes and spears to shove down those that might succeed in mounting the ramparts. While besieging a fort, the method adopted by the invading army was to first cut open a wide passage through the jungle around the fort, then fill up the moat to enable the army to approach the walls and finally scale the wall with ladders or break open the gates with the help of elephants trained to do the work. [27]
When the battle lines were drawn up, the elephants were placed first, the chariots and cavalry were ranged behind them and the infantry occupied the rear. The chariots and elephants carried the royalty and the generals that led the army and were armed with lances or swords and shields adorned with gold. The infantry consisted of archers and lancers who also carried swords and large bucklers. The cavalry carried lighter arms than the infantry. Since the elephants always formed the most formidable part of an army, it was deemed a great feat of valour to kill an enemy elephant. [28]
The main sources of royal revenue were taxes, tributes, customs duties and tolls. [29] Taxes were called Karai or Irai, tributes called Tirai and customs tolls and duties were called Sungam. Levy of taxes as well as expenditure was at the discretion of the king who decided the rate and incidence of taxes, as well as any remissions. [30] Land tax, paid in money or in kind, and income tax, equal to one-sixth of an individual's income, were the major types of taxes collected. [31] Other sources of revenue include tributes paid by feudal subordinates, war booty presents by loyal and visiting subjects, treasure troves besides land revenue, cess and forced gifts. Tolls were collected on the trunk-roads used by caravans and at the frontier of each kingdom. Customs were levied at seaports where the imported goods landed. [29] The export of locally manufactured goods such as textiles, pearls etc. earned a lot of foreign exchange for the royal treasury. The king took one-tenth of the total earnings from pearl-diving and sale of pearls as his royalty. [32]
The items incurring expenditure for the king include the military, gifts to poets and temples, maintenance of educational and health services, building infrastructure such as roads and irrigation and the palace household expenses. Tax remission also deprived the king of some revenue. [31] Expenses incurred in connection with the recruitment and maintenance of the army and waging of war were a considerable drain on the treasury. The palace consisted of not only the members of the royal family but a vast crowd of merchants, officials and entertainers all of whom had to be compensated for their services – this was also a major item of expenditure. [30]
The Hoysala Kingdom was a Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur, but was later moved to Halebidu.
The Vijayanagara Empire was a medieval Hindu empire that covered much of the region of Southern India, ruling the lands of the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, and some parts of Telangana and Maharashtra. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, members of a pastoralist cowherd community that claimed Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Turco-Persian Muslim invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it conquered almost all of Southern India's ruling dynasties and pushed the Turco-Persian sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab region, in addition to annexing Gajapati Empire (Odisha) up to the Krishna River, thus becoming a notable power.
The Pandyan dynasty, also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai, was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, and among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam, the other three being the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Cheras. Existing since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas'. Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, the Pandyas ruled extensive territories including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai.
Parantaka Chola I was a Chola emperor who ruled for forty-eight years, annexing Pandya by defeating Rajasimhan II and in the Deccan won the Battle of Vallala against Rashtrakutas which happened before 916 CE. The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.
Parantaka II was a Chola emperor. He is also known as Sundara Chola as he was considered an epitome of male beauty. He was the son of Arinjaya Chola and queen Kalyani, a princess of Vaidumba family. Parantaka II ascended the Chola throne despite the fact that his cousin Madurantaka Uttama Chola, the son of Gandaraditya Chola was alive and he had equal if not more claim to the Chola throne. During his reign, Parantaka Sundara Chola defeated the Pandyas and Ceylon and then recaptured the Tondaimandalam from Rashtrakutas.
The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval Indian, thalassocratic empire that was established by the Pottapi branch of the Chola dynasty that rose to prominence during the middle of the ninth century and united southern India under their rule.
Rajaraja II was a Chola emperor who reigned from 1150 to 1173. He was made his heir apparent and Co-Regent in 1146 and so the inscriptions of Rajaraja II count his reign from 1146. Rajaraja's reign began to show signs of the coming end of the dynasty.
The Chola Government during the imperial period in 850 – 1200 CE was marked for its uniqueness and innovativeness. Cholas were the first dynasty who tried to bring the entire South India under a common rule and to a great extent succeeded in their efforts. Although the form and protocols of that government cannot be compared to a contemporary form of government, the history of the Chola empire belongs to a happy age in their history and great things were achieved by the government and the people. The Chola system of administration was highly organised and efficient. The king was the central pivot of administration and all the authority and decisions were handled by the respected Velir ministers appointed by the king. The operations in field were taken care of by the ambalakkarars who were in connection with the respected ministers.
The region of Tamil Nadu in the southeast of modern India, shows evidence of having had continuous human habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE. Throughout its history, spanning the early Upper Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures.
Veera Ballala II was the most notable monarch of the Hoysala Empire. His successes against the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Southern Kalachuris, the Pandyas of Madurai and the waning Western Chalukya Empire, and his domination over the diminishing Cholas of Tanjore took the Hoysalas to their peak of power. The historian Chaurasia claims by the end of the 12th century, Ballala II's conquests had made the Hoysalas the most powerful dynasty of the Deccan. According to historian Derrett, Ballala II was "the most outstanding among Hoysala kings", and historian William Coelho in comparing Ballala II to King Vishnuvardhana writes, "he vied in glory with his grandfather".
Veera Ballala III was the last great king of the Hoysala Empire. During his rule, the northern and southern branches of the Hoysala empire were consolidated and administered from Halebidu. During his rule, he fought numerous wars with the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Pandyan Dynasty of Madurai and other minor dynasties of South India. But it was his conflict with the invading forces of Alauddin Khalji, and later those of Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Sultan of Delhi, that would alter the course of history of South India. For his courage and fortitude, the historians Suryanath Kamath, Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian have called him a "great ruler". With his death in c. 1343, South India saw the rise of a new Hindu empire, the Vijayanagara Empire. In the words of the historian Sen "the Hoysalas were the greatest among those who claim to be the makers of modern Mysore". Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, the brothers who founded the Vijayanagara Empire had served the king in a military capacity.
The Madurai Nayaks were a Telugu dynasty who ruled most of modern-day Tamil Nadu, India, with Madurai as their capital. The Madurai Nayaks had their origins in the Balija Chetti merchants clans of present-day Andhra Pradesh. The Nayak reign which lasted for over two centuries from around 1529 to 1736 was noted for its achievements in arts, cultural and administrative reforms, revitalization of temples previously ransacked by the Delhi Sultans, and the inauguration of a unique architectural style.
The Early Pandyas of the Sangam period were one of the three main kingdoms of the ancient Tamil country, the other two being the Cholas, and Cheras Dynasty. As with many other kingdoms around this period, most of the information about the Early Pandyas come to modern historians mainly through literary sources and some epigraphic, archaeological and numismatic evidence. The capital of the Early Pandyan kingdom was initially Korkai, Thoothukudi and was later moved to Koodal during the reign of Nedunjeliyan I. The kingdom lay to the south of the Maurya Empire of India.
The Early Pandyas were one of the dynasties that ruled the ancient Tamil country from the pre-Christian era to about 200 AD. The Sangam works such as Mathuraikkanci, Netunalvatai and the Purananuru collection give a lot of information about the life and habits of the people during this age.
The economy of the ancient Tamil country describes the ancient economy of a region in southern India that mostly covers the present-day states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The main economic activities were agriculture, weaving, pearl fishery, manufacturing and construction. Paddy was the most important crop; it was the staple cereal and served as a medium of exchange for inland trade. Pepper, millets, grams and sugarcane were other commonly grown crops. Madurai and Urayur were important centers for the textile industry; Korkai was the center of the pearl trade. Industrial activity flourished.
There are literary, archaeological, epigraphic and numismatic sources of ancient Tamil history. The foremost among these sources is the Sangam literature, generally dated to 5th century BCE to 3rd century CE. The poems in Sangam literature contain vivid descriptions of the different aspects of life and society in Tamilakam during this age; scholars agree that, for the most part, these are reliable accounts. Greek and Roman literature, around the dawn of the Christian era, give details of the maritime trade between Tamilakam and the Roman empire, including the names and locations of many ports on both coasts of the Tamil country. There are evidences as could be seen comparing standard forms of Sumerian literature and those recovered through present form of Tamil, for example the word for father in Sumerian transliteration is given as, "a-ia" that could easily be compared with Tamil word, "ayya". This also places ancient form of Tamil to early Sumerian period, say as ancient as 3500 BC.
Kadungon was a Pandya king who revived the Pandya rule in South India in the 6th century CE. Along with the Pallava king Simhavishnu, he is credited with ending the Kalabhra rule, marking the beginning of a new era in the Tamil speaking region.
Arikesari Maravarman, also known as Parankusa, was a Pandya king of early medieval south India.
Jayantavarman, known in Tamil as Seliyan Sendan, was a Pandya ruler of early historic south India. He is best known for extending the Pandya rule to the Chera country (Kerala). He was succeeded by his son Maravarman Arikesari Parankusan.
The Velvikudi inscription is an 8th-century bilingual copper-plate grant from the Pandya kingdom of southern India. Inscribed in Tamil and Sanskrit languages, it records the renewal of a grant of the Velvikudi village to a brahmana by the Pandya king Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna-varman I alias Jatila Parantaka in c. 769-770 CE.
