Turkey uses more electricity per person than the global average, but less than the European average, with demand peaking in summer due to air conditioning. Most electricity is generated from coal, gas and hydropower, with hydroelectricity from the east transmitted to big cities in the west. Electricity prices are state-controlled, but wholesale prices are heavily influenced by the cost of imported gas.
Each year, about 300terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity is used, which is almost a quarter of the total energy used in Turkey. On average, about four hundred grams of carbon dioxide is emitted per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated (400 gCO2/kWh); this carbon intensity is slightly less than the global average. As there is 100GW of generating capacity, far more electricity could be produced. Although only a tiny proportion is exported; consumption is forecast to increase, and there are plans for more exports during the 2020s.
Turkey's coal-fired power stations are the largest source of the country's greenhouse-gas emissions. Many brown coal power stations are subsidized, which increases air pollution. Imports of gas, mostly for Turkey's power stations, are one of the main expenses for the country. In winter, electricity generation is vulnerable to reductions in the gas supply from other countries.[6][7]Solar and wind power are now the cheapest generators of electricity,[8] and more of both are being built. If enough solar and wind power is built, the country's hydroelectric plants should be enough to cover windless cloudy weeks. Renewables generate a third of the country's electricity, and academics have suggested that the target of 32% renewable energy by 2030 be increased to 50%, and that coal power should be phased out by the mid-2030s. Increased use of electric vehicles is expected to increase electricity demand.
Consumption
Each year, about 300TWh of electricity is used in Turkey: this supplies almost a quarter of the total final energy demand,[9]:19 the rest being from coal, oil and gas.[10] Due to air conditioning demand peaks in summer:[11] with August highest (32TWh in 2021) and February typically lowest (24TWh in 2021).[12] Total national consumption divided by the population is under 4,000kWh a year, much below the average of around 10,000kWh a year for other OECD countries in Europe,[13][4]:17 but half as much again as the global average.[14] Shares of energy usage in 2019 totaled 45% for industry, 29% for services and 21% for households.[4]:16 Consumption is forecast to increase.[15]
As of 2021[update], household electricity consumption is estimated to average 230 kWh a month[16] and is dominated by refrigerators, followed by televisions then washing machines.[17] Space heating and electric vehicles have the biggest potential for demand side response.[18]:51
Between 2019 and 2024, Turkey plans to invest US$11 billion into energy efficiency;[19] and by 2035 replace 80% of electricity meters with smart meters.[20] Electricity's share of energy consumption is expected to increase, from 22% in 2019 to perhaps 28% in 2040, partly due to electrification of road transport.[21]
Distribution companies, some retail companies, and industrial zones send their demand forecasts to the Energy Ministry and the Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation (TEIAŞ) every year.[4]:21 TEİAŞ then publishes low, base and high 10 year forecasts,[4]:21 using the "DECADES" model; whereas the Energy Ministry uses the "Model for Analysis of Energy Demand".[25]
Some official demand forecasts are overestimated,[29][30][31] which could be due to low economic growth.[32][33] In 2019 actual generation was 76% of firm capacity, and overcapacity continued into the early 2020s.[33][34]
Industry
The share of electricity used in industry is expected to increase at the expense of the fossil fuel share as Turkey moves to more technology manufacturing.[35]:343 Less coal is being burnt for industry and oil burning remains static.[35]:343 One projection even shows electricity overtaking gas to become the largest industrial energy source at 30%,[35]:343 however more efficient lighting and industrial motors, together with policy changes supporting efficiency, could limit demand growth.[35]:340
Electrification of transport
Nostalgic tramway in Istanbul - transport is expected to once again become a major consumer with vehicles such as cars made by Togg, electric buses and trains
In 2021, less than 3000 fully electric cars were sold,[36] however production and use of some types of electric vehicles, such as cars manufactured by Togg, may increase demand during the 2020s.[37]:10Shura Energy Transition Center, a think tank, has recommended to automatically charge electric cars when plenty of wind and solar power is available.[37]:19 The architecture of Turkey means that many city dwellers live in apartment blocks without off-street parking: regulations require at least one charger per 50 new parking spaces in shopping malls and public parking lots.[38] Getting old diesel cars and trucks off the road would have health and environmental benefits, but this would require new pollution control legislation,[39] and as of 2021[update] the only commercial electric vehicles planned for mass production are vans.[40] The government aims to end sales of fossil fuel cars and lorries by 2040.[41]Ford hopes to build a factory to make batteries for commercial electric vehicles.[42]
Generation
Although wind and solar are increasing coal is only slowly declining. Gas generation makes up for hydropower during drought years.
Of the total 329TWh of electricity generated in 2021; natural gas produced 42%, coal 26%, hydropower 13%, and wind 10%.[1] Installed capacity reached 100GW in 2022.[1] Academics have suggested that the target of 32% from renewables by 2030 should be increased to at least 50%.[43] The state-owned Electricity Generation Company (EÜAŞ) has about 20% of the market,[44]:8 and there are many private companies.[45] The carbon intensity of generation during the 2010s was slightly over 400 gCO2/kWh,[46] around the global average.[47]
Air pollution from coal-fired power stations is damaging public health,[49]:48 and it is estimated that a coal phase-out by 2030 instead of by the 2050s would save over 100,000 lives.[50]Flue gas emission limits were improved in 2020, but data from mandatory reporting of emission levels is not made public. Turkey has not ratified the Gothenburg Protocol, which limits fine dust polluting other countries.
Coal-fired power stations are the largest source of greenhouse gas, at about a tonne each year per person, which is about the world average.[53] Coal-fired stations emit over 1kg of carbon dioxide for every kilowatt hour generated,[54] over twice that of gas power. Academics suggest that in order to reach Turkey's target of carbon neutrality by 2053, coal power should be phased out by the mid-2030s.[55] In January 2023 the National Energy Plan was published: it forecast a capacity increase to 24.3 GW by 2035,[56]:23 including 1.7 GW more by 2030.[56]:15 However by 2024 it was obvious that no new coal power stations would be built.[57]:11 The national plan forecasts coal generation decreasing but capacity payments continuing for flexible and baseload power.[56]:25 In 2024 Turkey is expected to burn more coal than any other European country.[58]
In 2020, power plants consumed 29% of natural gas in Turkey.[59] State-owned gas-fired power plants are less efficient than private plants, but can out-compete them, as the state guarantees a price for their electricity.[60] Gas power plants are used more when drought reduces hydropower, such as in 2021[61] which was a record year for gas consumption.[62] The National Energy Plan published in 2023 forecasts 10 GW more gas power plants will be built.[63]
Hydropower
Atatürk Dam in Turkey is the third largest dam in the world.
Hydropower is a critical source of electricity, and in some years substantial amounts can be generated due to Turkey's mountainous landscape, abundance of rivers, and it being surrounded by three seas. The main river basins are the Euphrates and the Tigris. Many dams have been built throughout the country, and a peak of 28GW of power can be generated by hydroelectric plants.[64] Almost 90TWh was generated in 2019, around 30% of the country's electricity.[65] There are many policies that support hydroelectricity. Construction of some dams has been controversial for various reasons: for example environmentalists claiming they damage wildlife such as fish,[66] or downstream countries complaining of reduced water flow.
Due to changes in rainfall, generation varies considerably from year to year.[lower-alpha 1] And, according to S&P Global Platts, when there is drought in Turkey during the peak electricity demand month of August the aim of the State Hydraulic Works to conserve water for irrigation can conflict with the Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation aiming to generate electricity.[68] Despite droughts increasing due to climate change, hydropower is predicted to remain important for load balancing.[35]:72 Converting existing dams to pumped storage has been suggested as more feasible than new pumped storage.[69]
The state-owned Electricity Generation Company (EÜAŞ) has about 20% of the market,[71] and there are many private companies.[72] The highest ever daily share of wind power was 25%, in 2022.[73]
Building new wind farms is cheaper than running existing coal plants which depend on imported coal.[74] According to modelling by Carbon Tracker, new wind will be cheaper than all existing coal plants by 2027.[75][76]
Turkey is located in an advantageous position in the Middle East and Southeast Europe for solar energy, and it is a growing part of renewable energy in the country, with almost 8GW generating about 4% of the country's electricity. Solar potential is high in Turkey, especially in the south-east and Mediterranean provinces.[77] Conditions for solar power generation are comparable to Spain. In 2020 Turkey ranked 8th in Europe for solar power,[4]:49 but it could increase far more quickly if subsidies for coal were abolished[78] and the auction system was improved.[79] Every gigawatt of solar power installed would save over US$100 million in gas import costs.[80]
Peak daily generation in 2020 was over 1TWh in September.[81] According to modelling by Carbon Tracker, new solar power became cheaper than new coal power in 2020,[82] and will become cheaper than existing coal plants in 2023.[83] According to think tank Ember, building new solar and wind power in Turkey is cheaper than running existing coal plants which depend on imported coal.[84] But they say that there are obstacles to building utility-scale solar, such as: lack of new capacity for solar power at transformers, a 50MW cap on any single solar power plant’s installed capacity, and large consumers being unable to sign long term power purchase agreements for new solar installations.[84] Unlicensed power plants, which are mostly solar, generated about 4% of electricity in 2021.[44]:13
There are almost 2 gigawatts of electrical geothermal power in Turkey, which is a significant part of renewable energy in Turkey. Geothermal power in Turkey began in the 1970s, in a prototype plant, following systematic exploration of geothermal fields. In the 1980s the pilot facility became the first geothermal power plant. The small-sized geothermal power plant was expanded to the country's biggest in 2013. Over 60 power plants operate in Turkey as of 2020[update],[85] with potential for more.[86] As well as contributing to electricity generation, geothermal energy is also used in direct heating applications. At the end of 2021 Turkey had 1.7GW installed capacity, the fourth largest in the world after the United States, Indonesia and the Philippines.[87]
There is almost 2 GW of geothermal and sites for much more including enhanced geothermal systems.[88] However carbon dioxide emissions can be high, especially for new plants, so to prevent carbon dioxide dissolved out of the rocks being released into the atmosphere the fluid is sometimes completely reinjected after its heat is used.[89]
Nuclear power stations in Turkey (view) Under construction Proposed
Turkey's first nuclear power plant, at Akkuyu, is planned to start generation in 2023, and is expected to last for at least 60 years.[90] The nuclear power debate has a long history, with the 2018 construction start in Mersin Province being the sixth major attempt to build a nuclear power plant since 1960.[91]Nuclear power has been criticised, as being very expensive to taxpayers.[92]
Hybrid generation became more popular in the early 2020s.[94] If distributed generation installed power is under 11kW, it is only allowed to be connected to the low voltage network, not the high voltage network.[95] The first virtual power plant was created in 2017 with wind, solar and hydropower; and geothermal was added in 2020.[96]
Transmission and storage
The transmission system operator is the Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation (TEİAŞ),[97] which is a state-owned monopoly as of 2022.[4]:11 It is planned to sell a minority share to the private sector in 2022.[98] Transmission is regulated by the Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA).[99] The first long-distance transmission line was from Zonguldak to Istanbul in 1952,[100] and as of 2021[update] there are 72,000km.[101] The grid runs at 400kV and 154kV,[102] and there are over 700 transmission grid substations.[103] Transmission costs, including losses and operation costs, are shared equally between producer and consumer.[104]:70
Reducing grid losses and outages is important, as is improving grid quality.[105] Power consumption is often distant from generation, so grid improvements are needed to prevent bottlenecks and increase flexibility.[106] As of 2023 most transformers and many lines need replacing to meet demand, and cause wildfires.[107] There are 11 international interconnectors,[4] including all of Turkey's neighbours by land except Armenia (although relations are improving).[108] A future connection under the Caspian Sea to Turkmenistan[109] and Kazakhstan might be beneficial.[110] Although TEİAŞ is no longer an observer member of ENTSO-E it continues to attend technical discussions of working groups.[111]:105As of 2020[update], links with the European Union allow 500MW export and 650MW import, whereas trade with other countries is possible but difficult to automate as they do not meet ENTSO-E synchronisation requirements.[112] In 2020 total exports were 2.5GWh, mostly to Greece, and imports 1.9GWh, mostly from Bulgaria.[4]:39
According to a 2018 study by Sabancı University, 20% of Turkey's electricity may be generated from wind and solar by 2026 with no extra transmission costs, and 30% with a minor increase in grid investment.[113] With the increase in electricity generated by solar panels, energy storage may become more important. A pumped hydropower plant is planned to be completed by 2022.[114] Converting existing dams to pumped storage has been suggested as more feasible than new pumped storage.[69] Mobile 10MW batteries may be useful in the future for reducing temporary transmission congestion between regions, or larger ones for frequency regulation.[115] Adding ice thermal storage to hypermarket cooling systems is estimated to be economically viable.[116]
The nationwide blackout in 2015 was not caused by a natural disaster, but by the limited capacity and lack of resilience of the main east-west connection whilst it was being maintenanced - leaving it unable to redistribute enough of the eastern hydroelectricity to the high consuming west. It did not greatly affect Van Province as it was supplied from Iran,[117] and the EU interconnection helped restore power.[118] More integration with other countries would increase resilience.[119] New wind and solar in the west and centre of the country is closer to demand and is thus reducing the dependance on high voltage transmission.[120]
Distribution
"Danger of death" sign on transformer belonging to the Bosphoros distribution company BEDAŞ (D = dağıtım = distribution).
As part of electricity industry reforms between 2009 and 2013, the ownership of all electricity distribution infrastructure was retained by state owned Turkish Electricity Distribution Corporation (TEDAŞ), but responsibility for operation, maintenance and new investment in distribution networks was transferred to 21 privately owned regional entities under licences from EMRA. Electricity at voltages up to 36kV is distributed by regional companies and many organized industrial zones.[122]
There are over a million kilometres of distribution lines, of which about 80% are overhead lines and the rest are underground cables. The average losses across all distribution networks (including both technical and non-technical losses) are around 12%.[123] but in Dicle and Vangölü are over 20%.(cite EPDK 2022) In 2019 TEDAŞ estimated the System Average Interruption Duration Index (OKSÜRE in Turkish) at 1308, which is much worse than neighbouring European countries: however no estimate has been published since then.[124]:27 Nevertheless at least one distribution company measures it, together with the related frequency index (OKSIK in Turkish).[125]:73
There are plans for a smart grid.[126] According to the Shura Energy Center, increasing Turkey's proportion of electric cars to 10% by 2030 would smooth distribution, amongst many other benefits.[127]
According to the Chamber of Electrical Engineers, the regional monopolies make excess profits.[128][129][130] Their income is determined by EMRA,[131] as distribution charges are set annually by EMRA.[122]
Resilience
Earthquakes in Turkey are common and sometimes cut transmission lines and destroy substations.[132] If the permanent supervisory control centre of a distribution grid is destroyed in a disaster a mobile centre may take control.[133] The installation of more local solar power with batteries, and microgrids in vulnerable places, might help vital buildings such as hospitals retain power after a natural disaster, such as earthquake or flood. Academics suggest that cost–benefit analysis of such emergency power systems should take into account any benefits of resilience and also the cost of installing an islandable system.[134][135]
Market
Energy Exchange Istanbul (EXIST), is the electricity market operator company responsible for the day-ahead and intra-day markets. EXIST was established in 2015 and operates under a license from the Energy Markets Regulatory Authority (EMRA).[136]As of 2022[update] the wholesale price is the same across the country,[137][lower-alpha 2] but it has been suggested that price zones should be defined to reflect network congestion, for example in getting run-of-the river hydropower to consumers.[140] The wholesale price is generally lowest in spring, due to moderate temperatures and abundant hydropower.[141]:?
Although the wholesale market is operated by EXIST;[142] prices are controlled by EUAŞ, the state electricity generation company.[143] Gas-fired power stations set the market price.[144] The National Load and Dispatch Centre prepares forward estimates of demand for each hour, and these are used to guide scheduling of generation 24 hours in advance.[122]
The Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEİAŞ) is the physical operator of the balancing power market and the ancillary services market.[122] Because price is determined at the margin the electricity price is very dependent on the natural gas price.[145] The government has capped the wholesale electricity price at thrice the average of the previous 12 months,[145] which is high enough for gas and imported coal plants to remain in operation even when their fuel costs are high.[44]:14
Because gas-fired power plants are often the price setters, wholesale electricity prices are strongly influenced by wholesale natural gas prices, which are themselves influenced by the USD exchange rate.[4]:64 Owning over 20% of capacity,[4]:24 the state Electricity Generation Company is a key player in the market along with private wholesalers (such as Enerjisa, Cengiz, Eren, Limak and Çelikler[4]:52) and an over the counter market.[4]:9 In 2019 150TWh, about half of the electricity generated, was traded on the day ahead spot market.[146] Market pricing is not completely transparent, cost reflective and non-discriminatory.[147] When the lira falls bilateral contracts are sometimes unable to compete with regulated tariffs: but when the exchange rate is stable industrial customers prefer bilateral contracts (almost no households are on those).[148] In 2021 EXIST launched an electricity futures market.[149]
As of 2021[update], there is a lot of excess generation capacity[150] and more could be exported.[112] In 2021, Turkey exported 4.1TWh and imported 2.3TWh.[12] Over 100 million euros of exports are at risk due to the lack of a carbon price.[151] International trade with some countries is hampered by geopolitical difficulties such as the Cyprus dispute; for example, Turkey will be bypassed by the EuroAsia Interconnector.[152] Because TEIAŞ is not unbundled, it cannot become a full member of the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E), but the grids are synchronised and there is technical co-operation.[153] The grid is linked across most land borders, and about 1% of electricity is imported or exported.[154] Technical studies are being done on increasing connections with the European grid.[155] In 2022 export capacity to Iraq was increased from 150 MW to 500 MW.[156]
Some power barges supplying other countries burn heavy fuel oil but plan to convert to LNG.[157] For exports to the EU the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) will be phased in from 2023 to 2026.[158] Although Turkish electricity is likely to be cheaper than that generated in the EU, the impact of the CBAM is unclear as of 2021.[159] More linking transmission is needed, and becoming a full member of ENTSO-E would help exports.[159]
Retailing
Although the 2013 Electricity Market Law says that distribution companies cannot retail, most customers buy from retail "arms" of their local distribution companies.[160] Households that consume over a certain amount, and all non-household customers, can switch suppliers.[161] Retail price increases have often been due to depreciation of the lira.[4]:143 Pricing can vary by region,[104]:70 but there is some redistribution,[4]:43 and electricity is subsidized for about 2 million households.[4]:20 An example of a regional retail company is YEPAŞ (P = perakende = retail).[162]
European wiring color codes are used.[163]Schuko plugs (plug type C with 2 round pins, and type F with 2 round pins and 2 earth clips[164]) and sockets are standard, at 230 V[165] and 50Hz.[166] For public charging of electric vehicles, the European standard Combined Charging System is used.[167] As of 2022, there are no Tesla superchargers.[168]
After purchasing a property in an urban area, earthquake insurance is compulsory before electricity is connected.[169] In case of natural disasters or pandemics the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources may cover the financial costs resulting from the postponement (up to one year) of electricity bills, but not the bill amount itself.[170]As of 2022[update] the VAT rate for residential customers and agricultural irrigation is 8%.[171]
As elsewhere, new renewables are auctioned.[172] In 2019 the value-adjusted levelized cost of energy (VALCOE - the cost including power system value but not environmental externalities) of onshore wind was slightly less than solar PV,[173] but solar PV is expected to become the most cost-competitive power generation technology by the late 2020s.[174] According to the Chamber of Engineers 75% of electricity in 2021 was dollar indexed.[175] In 2021 new wind and solar became cheaper than existing power stations burning imported coal.[176]As of 2018[update], if all currently economic renewable projects were developed, the added electricity generation would be sufficient to reduce Turkey's natural gas imports by 20%,[177][178] and every GW of solar power installed would save over $100million on the gas bill.[179] According to EMRA exports to the EU accompanied by YEK-G will be exempt from the electricity CBAM.[4]:88
As of 2019[update], about 15% of power was generated by the public sector.[180] During the 2010s, power companies borrowed heavily in dollars, but economic growth was overestimated and they overbuilt generating capacity.[180] This resulted in bank debts of $34 billion by 2019 and revenues declining in dollar terms due to the fall in the lira; furthermore, 7% of debts were non-performing.[181][182] In the early 2020s, Turkish electricity companies still owe much foreign currency,[183][184] debt is being restructured[185] and plants are changing ownership.[186][187] In 2021 BOTAŞ charged more for gas than before, leaving gas-fired power stations at a disadvantage to coal-fired power stations.[188]
About half the electricity used in 2019 was generated from local resources.[189] Total import dependency in the power sector was over 50% in 2019.[29] It has, for example, been predicted that more trade would benefit electricity in Bulgaria by stabilizing its price.[190]
The main growth in solar and wind during the 2020s is predicted to be in Renewable Energy Resource Areas(YEKA): these use auctions and include a requirement to manufacture mostly in Turkey.[191] The EU has complained that local content requirements are against trade agreements.[192]Build Own Operate is being used to construct Akkuyu nuclear plant to ensure that responsibility for cost overruns is with Rosatom.[191] Power purchase agreements are offered by the government both for nuclear and local coal.[193][147] The financing of the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan and continuation beyond 2023 is unclear.[147]
Capacity payments
The capacity mechanism regulation says that the purpose of the payments to create sufficient installed power capacity, including the spare capacity required for supply security in the electricity market, and/or to maintain reliable installed power capacity for long-term system security.[194][195] The 2021 capacity mechanism budget was 2.6 billion lira (US$ 460 million).[36] Some hydropower plants, plants burning local coal, and plants older than 13 years burning imported fuel are eligible.[44] In 2022 ten hydro plants, several gas power plants and many lignite-fired plants were eligible for the capacity mechanism:[196] and capacity payments included variable cost components and the market exchange price, as well as fixed cost components and the total installed power capacity by source.[195] These payments have been criticised by some economists.[144] A study published in 2023 surveyed experts and found that most wanted the capacity mechanism to be reformed, for example by including demand response or zonal pricing: however policymakers were not keen on raising the price cap.[197]
Feed-in-tariffs
As of 2021[update], feed-in-tariffs in lira per MWh are: wind and solar 320, hydro 400, geothermal 540, and various rates for different types of biomass: for all these there is also a bonus of 80 per MWh if local components are used.[198] Tariffs will apply for 10 years and the local bonus for 5 years.[198] Rates are determined by the presidency,[199] and the scheme replaced the previous USD-denominated feed-in-tariffs for renewable energy.[200] Thus, as in some other countries, the wholesale price of renewable electricity is much less volatile in local currency than the price of fossil fuelled electricity.
End user pricing
The complicated system[201] of prices to end consumers is regulated by the government.[202] A green tariff called YETA (the certificates are called YEK-G) to allow consumers to buy only sustainable electricity was introduced in 2021.[203] The YETA price[4]:88 is higher than the regular price[4]:89 by a certain amount per kWh (about 1 lira in 2022).[44]:35
Electricity prices were greatly increased in early 2022 following a large depreciation of the lira in 2021.[204] Household consumption under 210kWh a month is priced at a cheaper rate.[17][205] There is some time based pricing: with 2200 to 0600 being cheapest followed by 0600 to 1700, and 1700 to 2200 being the most expensive.[17] According to Shura Energy Center moving to more time-based end user pricing would be beneficial: with prices being somewhat higher in the early morning and a lot higher in the late afternoon, as there is plenty of sunshine to meet demand in the middle of the day (see also duck curve).[104] Shura suggested in 2020 that future pricing should be more competitive and better reflect costs, with low-income families being continued to be supported with direct payments.[21] Vulnerable families are supported with direct payments for their electricity consumption up to 150 kWh/month.[206] In early 2022, prices for small businesses became a political issue, as they had risen a lot due to global energy prices rises and the depreciation of the lira.[207] There were street protests, and the main opposition Republican People’s Party leader Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu refused to pay his own bill in support.[208][130] The president said that businesses would also be moved to a tiered pricing system, the number of households supported would be almost doubled to four million, and civil society organisations would be moved to the household rate.[16]
In 2023 Shura suggested that the electricity consumption tax[tr] (ETV or BTV) of 5% residential, was unfairly disadvantaging electricity over gas, for example by taxing electricity powering heat pumps more than gas for heating. They said that taxes and subsidies for residential gas and electricity should at least be equalized.[209]:17–18
Unlike other European countries emission intensity has not improved since 1990 and remains over 400 gm of CO2/kWh,[2] around the average for G20 countries.[215] Investment in wind and solar is hampered by subsidies for coal.[216]:10 According to a 2021 study by several NGOs if coal power subsidies were completely abolished and a carbon price introduced at around US$40 (which is much cheaper than the EU Allowance) then no coal power plants would be profitable and all would close down before 2030.[217] A 2021 decarbonization plan by Istanbul Policy Center, a thinktank, has almost all coal power shutdown by 2035; whereas natural gas plants would continue to run to provide flexibility for greatly increased wind and solar, but at a much lower capacity factor.[218]
The Turkish Solar İndustry Association suggests that building solar plants next to hydropower would help to stabilize output in times of drought. Shura also suggest that excess renewable electricity could be used to produce green hydrogen.[219] Turkey is not aligned with the EU carbon capture and storage directive.[220]
As of 2020[update] Turkey's three main policy objectives are to meet forecast increased demand, a predictable market, and to reduce import costs.[221][9] To meet these objectives policy includes increasing generation from solar, wind and domestic coal;[222] and starting to produce nuclear energy. As of 2022[update] some of these generation methods are subsidized - for example EÜAŞ will purchase the forthcoming nuclear power at an agreed price.[160] Coal is heavily subsidized in Turkey. Storage and transmission improvements are also supported - for example increasing the amount of pumped hydro.[223]
The government aims for half of electricity to be from renewable energy by 2023;[181] with capacity targets of 32GW for hydropower, 12GW for wind, 10GW for solar, and 3GW for biomass and geothermal combined.[9] Shura Energy Transition Center have suggested that longer-term plans and targets would also be useful, together with a policy on distributed generation,[224] market design to incentivize grid flexibility was also suggested.[224] The objectives are developing local manufacturing capacity such as wind turbines,[225] technology transfer and creating a competitive domestic market for low-cost renewable energy.[226] For wind and solar tenders, there is a high domestic content requirement, and imported solar modules are taxed. According to the European Commission the domestic content requirements contradict World Trade Organization and EU-Turkey Customs Union rules.[147] A solar PV factory was opened in 2020.[227] Developing regulation to specify the role of aggregators in providing flexibility, and including energy storage systems and demand side management within ancillary services, has been suggested.[228]
In 2023 the Chamber of Mechanical Engineers criticised the just published National Energy plan as amateurish: they said that it forecast generation of 174 TWh in 2035 with 57 GW of fossil fuel power plants but that, in 2021, 215 TWh was generated from 46 GW installed.[229] Shura Energy Center said in 2023 that the electricity sector should take the lead in decarbonisation to the 2053 net zero goal.[230]:3
In 1875 a French company was awarded a 5 year concession to power Istanbul's Üsküdar district, Thessaloniki and Edirne, and was awarded a 4-year concession for electric lighting of several other cities. However, despite the agreement, no progress was made.[231]:3 The first power station in the Ottoman Empire was a small hydroelectric power station built in 1902 outside Tarsus.[232] Electricity was transmitted to the city centre at high voltage, then distributed to customers at low voltage for their lighting.[231] During this period tenders for power were generally awarded to foreigners, due to lack of Ottoman finance and expertise.[233]:72,73
The electricity sector was nationalized in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and by the end of nationalization, almost a quarter of the population was supplied with electricity.[236] However only big cities such as Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir received continuous electricity in the 1950s; other cities were electrified only between dusk and 10 or 11 in the evening.[237]:243
The Turkish Electricity Authority was created in 1970 and consolidated almost all of the sector.[236] By the end of the 20th century, almost all the population was supplied with electricity.[238] Privatization of the electricity sector started in 1984[236] and began "in earnest" in 2004[239] after the Electricity Market Law was passed in 2001.[240]
↑ The table on page iii of the 2022 EMRA report totals 15 + 23 + 14 = 52 coal power licences - but as ZETES 1 2 and 3 have the same licence if counted as separate power stations the total would be 54, which matches the total on the Turkish version of the Wikipedia list.[48]:iii
↑ For example, drought in 2020 caused a generation drop of over 10% compared to the previous year.[67]
↑ PTF means the Day ahead Market Clearing Price and SMF means the Real time System Marginal Price and AOF means the hourly Weighted Average Price all in (TL/MWh)[138][139]
↑ The 2019 carbon content (t/TJ), oxidation factor and CO2emission intensity (t/TJ NCV), respectively, of the main fossil fuels burnt in Turkish power stations were:[211]:49 & 50,table 3.5,3.6,3.7
These figures are unremarkable except for the extremely low-quality lignite, which is explained in detail in Coal in Turkey. The CO2 emission intensity (or emission factor) shown above is the mass of CO2 emitted for each unit of heat produced by burning a fuel. In contrast, the grid emission intensity is the mass of CO2e produced per unit of electricity supplied to the electrical grid. Because thermal power stations generally convert less than half of the heat energy into electrical energy,[212] their numbers for grid emission intensity are much greater than those shown above.
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Turkiye is a founding member of the OECD and G20. The country's economy ranked as the 17th-largest in the world and 7th-largest in Europe by nominal GDP in 2023. It also ranked as the 11th-largest in the world and 5th-largest in Europe by PPP in 2023. According to the IMF, as of 2022, Turkey had an upper-middle income, mixed-market, emerging economy. Turkey has often been defined as a newly industrialized country since the turn of the 21st century. The country is the fourth most visited destination in the world, and has over 1,500 R&D centres established both by multinational and national firms. Turkey is among the world's leading producers of agricultural products, textiles, motor vehicles, transportation equipment, construction materials, consumer electronics, and home appliances.
Energy in the United States is obtained from a diverse portfolio of sources, although the majority came from fossil fuels in 2021, as 36% of the nation's energy originated from petroleum, 32% from natural gas, and 11% from coal. Electricity from nuclear power supplied 8% and renewable energy supplied 12%, which includes biomass, wind, hydro, solar and geothermal.
Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, include biomass, hydroelectricity, geothermal power and heat. Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time; they include solar heating, photovoltaics, wind power, solar thermal power stations, and modern forms of bioenergy. Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. In 2019, nearly 75% of new installed electricity generation capacity used renewable energy and the International Energy Agency (IEA) has predicted that by 2025, renewable capacity will meet 35% of global power generation.
Wind power generates about 10% of Turkey's electricity, mainly in the west in the Aegean and Marmara regions, and is gradually becoming a larger share of renewable energy in the country. As of 2023, Turkey has 11 gigawatts (GW) of wind turbines. The Energy Ministry plans to have almost 30 GW by 2035, including 5 GW offshore.
Solar power, also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Solar panels use the photovoltaic effect to convert light into an electric current. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and solar tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight to a hot spot, often to drive a steam turbine.
Turkey’s sunny climate possesses a high solar energy potential, specifically in the South Eastern Anatolia and Mediterranean regions. Solar power is a growing part of renewable energy in the country, with 12 gigawatts (GW) of solar panels generating 5% of the country's electricity. Solar thermal is also important.
Different methods of electricity generation can incur a variety of different costs, which can be divided into three general categories: 1) wholesale costs, or all costs paid by utilities associated with acquiring and distributing electricity to consumers, 2) retail costs paid by consumers, and 3) external costs, or externalities, imposed on society.
The Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is a large nuclear power plant in Turkey under construction located in Akkuyu, Büyükeceli, Mersin Province. It is expected to generate around 10% of the country's electricity when completed.
Energy consumption per person in Turkey is similar to the world average, and over 85 per cent is from fossil fuels. From 1990 to 2017 annual primary energy supply tripled, but then remained constant to 2019. In 2019, Turkey's primary energy supply included around 30 per cent oil, 30 per cent coal, and 25 per cent gas. These fossil fuels contribute to Turkey's air pollution and its above average greenhouse gas emissions. Turkey mines its own lignite but imports three-quarters of its energy, including half the coal and almost all the oil and gas it requires, and its energy policy prioritises reducing imports.
Energy in California is a major area of the economy of California. California is the state with the largest population and the largest economy in the United States. It is second in energy consumption after Texas. As of 2018, per capita consumption was the fourth-lowest in the United States partially because of the mild climate and energy efficiency programs.
The Energiewende is the ongoing transition by Germany to a low carbon, environmentally sound, reliable, and affordable energy supply. The new system intends to rely heavily on renewable energy, energy efficiency, and energy demand management.
Hydroelectricity is a major source of electricity in Turkey, due to its mountainous landscape and many rivers. The country's main river basins are the Euphrates and Tigris. Over 700 hydropower plants have been built, and they make up about 30% of the country's electricity generating capacity. Annual generation varies greatly, and in rainy years lots of hydroelectric power can be generated. Government policies have generally supported building dams, but some are controversial in neighbouring countries, and some raise concerns about damage to the environment and wildlife.
Renewables supply a quarter of energy in Turkey, including heat and electricity. Some houses have rooftop solar water heating, and hot water from underground warms many spas and greenhouses. In parts of the west hot rocks are shallow enough to generate electricity as well as heat. Wind turbines, also mainly near western cities and industry, generate a tenth of Turkey’s electricity. Hydropower, mostly from dams in the east, is the only modern renewable energy which is fully exploited. Hydropower averages about a fifth of the country's electricity, but much less in drought years. Apart from wind and hydro, other renewables; such as geothermal, solar and biogas; together generated almost a tenth of Turkey’s electricity in 2022. Türkiye has ranked 5th in Europe and 12th in the world in terms of installed capacity in renewable energy. The share of renewables in Türkiye’s installed power reached to 54% at the end of 2022.
Fossil gas supplies over a quarter of Turkey's energy. The country consumes 50 to 60 billion cubic metres of this natural gas each year, nearly all of which is imported. A large gas field in the Black Sea however started production in 2023.
Coal in Turkey generates between a quarter and a third of the nation's electricity. There are 54 active coal-fired power stations with a total capacity of 21 gigawatts (GW).
Oil supplies over a quarter of Turkey's energy. Because the country produces very little oil, it is almost completely dependent on imports of oil and oil products such as petrol and diesel, over half of which is consumed in the country's road vehicles. Turkey is the world's largest user of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for road transport.
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