Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand von Steuben (born Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin Louis von Steuben; September 17, 1730 – November 28, 1794), also referred to as Baron von Steuben (German:[fɔn ˈʃtɔʏbm̩]), was a Prussian military officer who played a leading role in the American Revolutionary War by reforming the Continental Army into a disciplined and professional fighting force.[1] His contributions marked a significant improvement in the performance of US troops, and he is subsequently regarded as one of the fathers of the United States Army.[2]
Born into a military family, Steuben was exposed to war from an early age; at 14 years old, he observed his father directing Prussian engineers in the 1744 siege of Prague. At age 16 or 17, he enlisted in the Prussian Army,[3][4] which was considered the most professional and disciplined in Europe.[5] During his 17 years of military service, Steuben took part in several battles in the Seven Years' War (1756–63), rose to the rank of captain, and became aide-de-camp to Prussian King Frederick the Great, who was renowned for his military prowess and strategy. Steuben's career culminated in his attendance of Frederick's elite school for young military officers, after which he was abruptly discharged from the army in 1763, allegedly by the machinations of a rival.[4]
Steuben spent 11 years as court chamberlain to the prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, a small German principality. In 1769, the Duchess of Wurttemburg, a niece of Frederick, named him to the chivalric Order of Fidelity, a meritorious award that conferred the title, Freiherr, or 'free lord';[6] in 1771, his service to Hohenzollern-Hechingen earned him the title baron.[7] In 1775, as the American Revolution had begun, Steuben saw a reduction in his salary and sought some form of military work; unable to find employment in peacetime Europe, he joined the US war effort through mutual French contacts with US diplomats, most notably ambassador to France Benjamin Franklin. Due to his military exploits, and his willingness to serve the Americans without compensation, Steuben made a positive impression on both Congress and General George Washington, who appointed him as temporary Inspector General of the Continental Army.
Appalled by the state of US forces, Steuben took the lead in teaching soldiers the essentials of military drills, tactics, and discipline based on Prussian techniques.[8] He wrote Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, which remained the army's drill manual for decades, and continues to influence modern U.S. army manuals.[9][10] Steuben also addressed widespread administrative waste and graft, helping save desperately needed supplies and funds. As these reforms began bearing fruit on the battlefield, in 1778, Congress, on Washington's recommendation, commissioned Steuben as Inspector General with the rank of Major General. He served the remainder of the war as Washington's chief of staff and one of his most trusted advisors.[4][11]
After the war, Steuben was made a U.S. citizen and granted a large estate in New York in reward for his service. In 1780, he was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society, a learned society that included most of the nation's most prominent founding fathers.[12]
Early life and education
Baron von Steuben was born in the fortress town of Magdeburg in Prussia (now in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany), on September 17, 1730, the son of Royal Prussian Engineer Capt. Wilhelm von Steuben and his wife, Elizabeth von Jagvodin.[13] When his father entered the service of Empress Anna of Russia, young Friedrich went with him to Crimea and then to Kronstadt, staying until the Russian war against the Turks under General Burkhard Christoph von Münnich. In 1740, Steuben's father returned to Prussia and Friedrich was educated in the garrison towns Neisse and Breslau by Jesuits. Despite his education by a Catholic order, von Steuben remained critical of Roman Catholicism.[14]:63 Originally, von Steuben's family were Protestants in the Kingdom of Prussia, and after his emigration to America he became a member of the Reformed German Church, a Reformed congregation in New York.[15] It is said that at age 14 he served as a volunteer with his father in one of the campaigns of the War of the Austrian Succession.[16]
Upon the reduction of the army at the end of the war, in 1763, Steuben was one of many officers who found themselves unemployed.[18] Towards the end of his life, Steuben indicated in a letter that "an inconsiderate step and an implacable personal enemy" led to his leaving the Prussian army.[14]:61
In 1763, Steuben had been formally introduced to the future French Minister of War, Claude Louis, Comte de Saint-Germain, in Hamburg. They met again in Paris in 1777. The Count, fully realizing the potential of an officer with Prussian general staff training, introduced him to Benjamin Franklin. Franklin, however, was unable to offer Steuben a rank or pay in the American army. The Continental Congress had grown tired of foreign mercenariescoming to America and demanding a high rank and pay. Promoting these men over qualified American officers caused discontent in the ranks. Steuben would have to go to America strictly as a volunteer and present himself to Congress. Steuben left these first meetings in disgust and returned to Prussia.[21] After unknown events, Steuben discharged from his position as a captain and traveled to Paris. It is speculated that he was, or was accused to be, a homosexual. It is unknown whether or not this occurred, and regardless, no charges were pursued.[21]
Upon the Count's recommendation, Steuben was introduced to future president George Washington by means of a letter from Franklin as a "Lieutenant General in the King of Prussia's service", an exaggeration of his actual credentials that appears to be based on a mistranslation of his service record. He was advanced travel funds and left Europe from Marseilles on Friday, September 26, 1777, on board the frigate Flamand.[19]
The Baron, his Italian Greyhound Azor (which he took with him everywhere), his young aide-de-camp Louis de Pontière, his military secretary, Peter Stephen Du Ponceau (then called Pierre Etienne Du Ponceau), and two other companions, reached Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on December 1, 1777, where they were almost arrested for being British because Steuben had mistakenly outfitted them in red uniforms.[17] They were extravagantly entertained in Boston.[citation needed] On February 5, 1778, Steuben and his party arrived in York, Pennsylvania, where the Continental Congress had relocated after being ousted from Philadelphia by the British advance. Arrangements were made for Steuben to be paid following the successful completion of the war according to his contributions. He arrived at Valley Forge on February 23, 1778, and reported for duty as a volunteer. One soldier's first impression of the Baron was "of the ancient fabled God of War ... he seemed to me a perfect personification of Mars. The trappings of his horse, the enormous holsters of his pistols, his large size, and his strikingly martial aspect, all seemed to favor the idea. He turned the volunteers into a great army."[17]
Inspector General
Washington appointed von Steuben as temporary inspector general. He went out into the camp to talk with the officers and men, inspect their huts, and scrutinize their equipment. Steuben established standards of sanitation and camp layouts that would still be standard a century and a half later. There had previously been no set arrangement of tents and huts. Men relieved themselves where they wished, and when an animal died it was stripped of its meat and the rest was left to rot where it lay. Steuben laid out a plan to have rows for command, officers, and enlisted men. Kitchens and latrines were on opposite sides of the camp, with latrines on the downhill side. There was the familiar arrangement of company and regimental streets.[citation needed]
On May 5, 1778, on General Washington's recommendation, Congress appointed Steuben inspector general of the army, with the rank and pay of major general. The internal administration had been neglected, and no books had been kept either as to supplies, clothing, or men. Steuben became aware of the "administrative incompetence, graft, war profiteering" that existed.[22] He enforced the keeping of exact records and strict inspections. His inspections saved the army an estimated loss of five to eight thousand muskets.[20]
Training program
Baron von Steuben Drilling Troops at Valley Forge, by E. A. Abbey (c. 1904), Pennsylvania State Capitol, Harrisburg
Steuben picked 120 men from various regiments to form an honor guard for General Washington, and used them to demonstrate military training to the rest of the troops.[20] These men in turn trained other personnel at regimental and brigade levels. Steuben's eccentric personality greatly enhanced his mystique. In full military dress uniform, he twice a day trained the soldiers who, at this point, were themselves greatly lacking in proper clothing.[23]
The Steuben Statue in Valley Forge National Historical Park
As he could only speak and write a small amount of English, Steuben originally wrote the drills in German, the military language of Europe at the time. His secretary, Du Ponceau, then translated the drills from German into French, and a secretary for Washington translated it to English.[17] They did this every single night so Washington could command his soldiers in the morning. Colonel Alexander Hamilton and General Nathanael Greene were of great help in assisting Steuben in drafting a training program for the Army.[citation needed] The Baron's willingness and ability to work with the men, as well as his use of profanity (in several different languages), made him popular among the soldiers.[17] It is here he met his close friend and future adopted heir, Captain Benjamin Walker. Within weeks, Walker was Steuben's aide-de-camp.[24]
Steuben introduced a system of progressive training, beginning with the school of the soldier, with and without arms, and going through the school of the regiment. This corrected the previous policy of simply assigning personnel to regiments. Each company commander was made responsible for the training of new men, but actual instruction was done by sergeants specifically selected for being the best obtainable.[citation needed]
In the earlier part of the war, the Americans used the bayonet mostly as a cooking skewer or tool rather than as a fighting instrument.[20] Steuben's introduction of effective bayonet charges became crucial. In the Battle of Stony Point, Continental Army soldiers attacked with unloaded muskets and won the battle solely on Steuben's bayonet training.[25]
The first results of Steuben's training were in evidence at the Battle of Barren Hill, May 20, 1778, and then again at the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778. Steuben, by then serving in Washington's headquarters, was the first to determine that the enemy was heading for Monmouth.[26]
In 1780 Steuben sat on the court-martial of the British Army officer Major John André, captured and charged with espionage in conjunction with the defection of General Benedict Arnold.[14]:289 He later traveled with Nathanael Greene, the new commander of the Southern campaign.[14]:344–345 He quartered in Virginia, since U.S. supplies and soldiers would be provided to the army from there. Steuben would help in the defense of Virginia with approximately 1,000 militia fighting a delaying action in the Battle of Blandford. During the spring of 1781, he aided Greene in the campaign in the South, culminating in the delivery of 450 Virginia Continentals to Lafayette in June.[32]
He was forced to take sick leave, rejoining the army for the final campaign at Yorktown, where his role was as commander of one of the three divisions of Washington's troops. In 1783, General Von Steuben joined General Knox at Vail's Gate, near West Point, in the fall of 1782 and in early 1783 moved to the Verplanck homestead, at Mount Gulian, across the Hudson River from Washington's headquarters in Newburgh.[22] Steuben gave assistance to Washington in demobilizing the army in 1783[33] as well as aiding in the defense plan of the new nation. In May 1783, Steuben presided over the founding of the Society of the Cincinnati.[22] He was discharged from the military with honor on March 24, 1784.[18]
Steuben became a U.S. citizen by act of the Pennsylvania legislature in March 1784 and later by the New York authorities in July 1786. With the war over, Steuben resigned from service and first settled with his longtime companion, William North, for whom he created a special room at his retreat he called the Louvre[35] on Manhattan Island, where he became a prominent figure and elder in the German Reformed Church. From 1785 until his death in 1794, he served as president of the German Society of the City of New York, a charitable society founded in 1784 to assist German immigrants.[36]
In 1786 during Shays' Rebellion, under the written name "Belisarius", Steuben criticized the Massachusetts government for being an oligarchy.[37]
On December 23, 1783, the state of New Jersey presented him with the use of an estate in Bergen County now known as Steuben House,[38] which had been confiscated from Loyalist Jan Zabriskie in 1781. Located in the formerly strategic New Bridge Landing, the estate included a gristmill and about 40 acres (16ha) of land. Legislators initially conditioned the grant, requiring Steuben to "hold, occupy and enjoy the said estate in person, and not by tenant." Gen. Philemon Dickinson of the New Jersey Militia informed the baron of this gift and responded to his inquiries that "there are on the premises an exceeding good House, an excellent barn, together with many useful outbuildings, all of which I am told, want some repairs...there is...a Grist-mill; a good Orchard, some meadow Ground, & plenty of Wood. The distance from N York by land 15 miles, but you may keep a boat & go from your own door to N York by water–Oysters, Fish & wild fowl in abundance–Possession will be given to you in the Spring, when you will take a view of the premises."[39] Von Steuben spent considerable sums to repair wartime damages to the house and restore its commercial operations under former aide Walker.
On September 5, 1788, the New Jersey Legislature gave Baron von Steuben full title to the former Zabriskie estate. A month later, recognizing his financial embarrassment, Steuben wrote another former aide-de-camp and companion, William North, recognizing: "The Jersey Estate must and is to be sold. Walker is my administrator, all debts are to be paid out of it." On November 6, 1788, Steuben again wrote North (at his new home in Duanesburg, New York), noting "My Jersey Estate is Advertised but not yet Sold, from this Walker Shall immediately pay to you the money, you so generously lend me and all my debts in New-York will be payed. I support my present poverty with more heroism than I Expected. All Clubs and parties are renounced, I seldom leave the House."[40] Steuben eventually sold the New Jersey property to a son of the previous owner, and it remained in the Zabriskie family until 1909. It is the only remaining eighteenth-century building that von Steuben owned.
Von Steuben moved upstate and settled in Oneida County on a small estate in the vicinity of Rome, New York, on land granted to him for his military service and where he had spent summers. He was later appointed a regent for what evolved into the University of the State of New York. In 1790, Congress awarded him a pension of $2,500 a year, which he kept until his death.[42]
Personal life and death
Von Steuben died on November 28, 1794, at his estate in Oneida County,[43] and was buried in a grove at what became the Steuben Memorial State Historic Site. The estate became part of the town of Steuben, New York, which was named for him.
Von Steuben is believed by some historians to have been openly gay by 18th century standards.[4]
Von Steuben had arrived in the United States with his 17-year-old secretary, Peter Stephen Du Ponceau.[44] At Valley Forge, he began close relationships with Benjamin Walker and William North, then both military officers in their 20s.[45] Von Steuben formally adopted Walker and North and made them his heirs. Some consider this action an indication of homosexual tendancies, as some homosexuals of the time period would use adoption as a subsitution for marriage.[46][47]
He never married and had no children, and he did not care much for his European relatives.[14] Thus, he left his estate to his companions and aides-de-camp, Walker and North, with whom he had had an "extraordinarily intense emotional relationship ... treating them as surrogate sons."[48] A third young man, John W. Mulligan (1774–1862), who also considered himself one of von Steuben's "sons," inherited his vast library, collection of maps and $2,500 in cash.[14]:702 Following von Steuben's death, North divided the property bequeathed to him among his military companions.[49]
Legacy
General Von Steuben on a two-cent postage stamp, 1930 issue
Generally, Von Steuben Day takes place in September in many cities throughout the United States. It is often considered the German-American event of the year. Participants march, dance, wear German costumes and play German music, and the event is attended by millions of people. The German-American Steuben Parade is held annually in September in New York City. It is one of the largest parades in the city and is traditionally followed by an Oktoberfest in Central Park as well as celebrations in Yorkville, Manhattan, a historically German section of New York City. The German-American Steuben Parade has been taking place since 1958.[50]Chicago also hosts a von Steuben Day parade, which is featured in the U.S. film Ferris Bueller's Day Off.[51]Philadelphia hosts a smaller Steuben Parade in the Northeast section of the city.[52]
The Steuben Society was founded in 1919 as "an educational, fraternal, and patriotic organization of American citizens of German background". In the difficult post-World War I years the Society helped the German-American community to reorganize. It is now one of the largest organizations for Americans of German descent.[53]
A warship, a submarine, and an ocean liner (later pressed into military service) were named in von Steuben's honor. In World War I the captured German ship SSKronprinz Wilhelm was renamed as USS Von Steuben,[54] and in World War II there was the Dampfschiff General von Steuben, an ill-fated German luxury passenger ship which was turned into an armed transport ship during the war.[55] During the Cold War, the U.S. Navy submarine USSVon Steuben was named for him.[56]
Von Steuben was one of four European military leaders who assisted the U.S. cause during the Revolution and was honored with a statue in Lafayette Square, just north of the White House, in Washington, D.C. The statue by Albert Jaegers was dedicated in 1910.[62] A copy was dedicated in Potsdam, Germany, in 1911, and destroyed during World War II. A new cast was given in honor of German-American friendship in 1987, and to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the founding of Berlin. It was installed in the Dahlem district, in what had been the U.S. sector of the formerly divided city.[63] An additional cast is in Steuben's home town of Magdeburg.[64] Statues of Steuben by J. Otto Schweizer can be found in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, and Utica, New York,[65] in addition to an equestrian statue by Schweizer in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.[66] A bust of Steuben is in the garden of the German Embassy in Washington, D.C.[65]
The Steuben House, presented to Steuben as a gift for his services in the Continental Army, is located at New Bridge Landing in River Edge, New Jersey. The house and surrounding farmland were seized in 1781 from a Loyalist family. The house looks much as it did after Steuben renovated it. The State of New Jersey took possession of the historic mansion and one acre of ground for $9,000 on June 27, 1928. It was opened as a public museum in September 1939. The Bergen County Historical Society opens the building for special events. It is under the jurisdiction of the Historic New Bridge Landing Park Commission.[67] It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 18, 1970 for its significance in architecture and military history.[68]
Other tributes include Steuben Field, the stadium of the Hamilton College football team.[69] Von Steuben, acting as Alexander Hamilton's surrogate, laid the cornerstone of the school.[70]
In 2007, a popular documentary DVD was released by LionHeart FilmWorks and director Kevin Hershberger titled Von Steuben's Continentals: The First American Army. The 60-minute, live-action documentary details the uniforms, camp life, food, weapons, equipment, and drill of the Continental soldier from 1775–1781, as taught and developed by Baron von Steuben.[75]
General von Steuben Drilling Washington's Army at Valley Forge (1915), J. Otto Schweizer, sculptor. Bas-relief panel on the base of the Valley Forge statue.
Steuben or Von Steuben most commonly refers to Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben (1730–1794), Prussian-American military officer, or to a number of things named for him in the United States. It may also refer to:
Von Steuben Day is a holiday traditionally held on a weekend in mid-September, celebrating the Prussian-born Baron Friedrich von Steuben, who arrived in the United States as a volunteer offering his services to General George Washington in the American Revolutionary War. Von Steuben is still regarded as one of the most important German Americans, as his training of the young American troops made victory against the British possible. Thus, his work helped gain independence for the United States of America. The day is generally considered the German-American event of the year, and many participants wear tracht costumes, including dirndls and lederhosen, to celebrate their heritage. Celebrations focus on parades where participants march, dance, and play music.
The Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was a decoration intended for victorious generals of the Prussian Army and its allies. It was the second highest class of the Iron Cross, following the Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, which was awarded only twice. Along with the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class, the Grand Cross was founded on 10 March 1813, during the Napoleonic Wars. It was renewed in 1870 for the Franco-Prussian War and again in 1914 for World War I. In 1939, when Adolf Hitler renewed the Iron Cross as a German decoration, he also renewed the Grand Cross.
Wilhelm Reichsfreiherr von Innhausen und Knyphausen was a German general officer who served in Hesse-Kassel. He fought in the American Revolutionary War, during which he commanded Hessian auxiliaries on behalf of Great Britain.
Foot drill is a part of the training regimen of organized military and paramilitary elements worldwide. "Foot drill" or "Drill" stems from time since antiquity when soldiers would march into battle, be expected to gather in a formation, and react to words of command from their commanders once the battle commenced. Much of the drill done today is either ceremonial, or implemented as a core part of training in the armed forces. Military discipline is enhanced by drill, as it requires instant obedience to commands and synchronized completion of said commands with the others in the unit.
Baron Adolph Wilhelm August Friedrich von Steinwehr was a German-Brunswick army officer who emigrated to the United States, became a geographer, cartographer, and author, and served as a Union general in the American Civil War.
William North was an American soldier and politician.
Benjamin Walker was a soldier in the American Revolutionary War and later served as a U.S. Representative from New York.
Valley Forge functioned as the third of eight winter encampments for the Continental Army's main body, commanded by General George Washington, during the American Revolutionary War. In September 1777, Congress fled Philadelphia to escape the British capture of the city. After failing to retake Philadelphia, Washington led his 12,000-man army into winter quarters at Valley Forge, located approximately 18 miles (29 km) northwest of Philadelphia. They remained there for six months, from December 19, 1777 to June 19, 1778. At Valley Forge, the Continentals struggled to manage a disastrous supply crisis while retraining and reorganizing their units. About 1,700 to 2,000 soldiers died from disease, possibly exacerbated by malnutrition.
The General Friedrich Von Steuben Headquarters is a historic house on Pennsylvania Route 23 in Valley Forge National Historical Park in Chester County, Pennsylvania. Built about 1770, it has been advanced as a possible residence of Baron Friedrich von Steuben (1730-1794), the Prussian drill-master of Continental Army troops during the 1777-78 Valley Forge encampment. The house, which is a partial reconstruction, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972.
Ethnic Germans served on both sides of the American Revolutionary War. Large numbers of Germans had emigrated to Pennsylvania, New York and other American colonies, and they were generally neutral or supported the Patriot cause. Some belonged to pacifist sects such as the Amish, but many were drawn into the Revolution and the war.
Albert Jaegers was an American sculptor.
Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States was a drill manual written by Inspector General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben during the American Revolutionary War. Commissioned to train troops at Valley Forge, Steuben first formed a model drill company of 100 men who were in turn to train further companies until the entire army was trained under the same procedures as the first company of troops. Following this exercise, Steuben published his drill instructions in a manual that was published in 1779 and widely distributed throughout the Continental Army. This manual became commonly known as the army's "Blue Book". It remained the official U.S. military guide until 1812.
Frederick Wilhelm von Egloffstein was a German-born military man, explorer, mapmaker, landscape artist and engraver. He was the first person to employ ruled glass screens, together with photography, to produce engravings.
Jakob Otto Schweizer was a Swiss-American sculptor noted for his work on war memorials.
Major General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben is a bronze statue of Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, executed by sculptor Albert Jaegers. It is erected in Lafayette Park in Washington, D.C.
Henry Leonard Philipe, Baron d'Arendt was a Prussian officer who volunteered to serve in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He was made colonel of the German Battalion in March 1777 and remained its commander until the unit was disbanded at the beginning of 1781. He was placed in charge during the Siege of Fort Mifflin in October 1777 but did not distinguish himself, committing an act of cowardice in front of an American and a French officer. After this incident, he allowed Samuel Smith and Simeon Thayer to exercise actual command of the besieged fort. D'Arendt was the one who first suggested that George Washington appoint an Inspector General to his staff. This advice proved to be very useful to the American cause when Washington appointed a fellow Prussian, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben to that position.
The Staats House, also known as the General Baron von Steuben Headquarters, is a historic building located at 17 Von Steuben Lane in South Bound Brook, Somerset County, New Jersey. Constructed c. 1740, it is now known as the Abraham Staats House after its second owner. In 1779, during the second Middlebrook encampment of the American Revolutionary War, it served as the headquarters for Prussian-American General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 4, 2002, and noted as representing "one of the finest remaining buildings from the second phase of Dutch immigration and settlement in the Raritan Valley".
Kuno Arndt von Steuben was a Prussian military officer, and a general in the First World War.
Dogs played various roles during the time of the American Revolutionary War. In addition to formal uses like their role in hunting, dogs often accompanied their owners while they were fighting and provided comfort for their owners and those with them in camps. During this time, dogs were being newly studied in science and depicted in art.
↑ Trickey, Erick. "The Prussian Nobleman Who Helped Save the American Revolution". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved January 31, 2022. Though his name is little known among Americans today, every U.S. soldier is indebted to von Steuben–he created America’s professional army.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
↑ Deats, Paula; Fleisher, Carol L. (1995). "A War Without End" episode". The Revolutionary War. The Learning Channel.
↑ Benemann, William E. (2006). "Male–Male Intimacy in Early America: Beyond Romantic Friendships". New York: Routledge.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[pageneeded]
↑ Von Zemenszky, Edith (1982). The Papers of General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben 1777–1794. Millwood, NY. Account with -------, reel 6, frame.
↑ Wust, Klaus (1984). Guardian on the Hudson: The German Society of the City of New York, 1784–1984. New York: The Society. ISBN0917968115. pp. 15–16.
↑ Richards, Leonard L (2002). Shays's Rebellion: The American Revolution's Final Battle. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN978-0812218701. OCLC56029217. pp. 15–16
↑ Karels, Carol (2007). The Revolutionary War in Bergen County. Charleston, SC: The History Press. p.61. ISBN978-1596293588.
↑ Wright, Kevin W. (2019). The Bridge That Saved a Nation, Bergen County, New Bridge and the Hackensack Valley. England: Arcadia Publishing by arrangement with Fonthill Media. p.191. ISBN978-1634991650.
↑ "Frederick William Augustus von Steuben, Baron." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Retrieved from Biography in Context database, October 9, 2016.
↑ "General Von Steuben". www.nps.gov. National Park Service. February 3, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
Chase, Philander D. "Baron von Steuben in the War of Independence" (Ph.D. diss., Duke Univ., 1972) ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1973. 7319468.
Clary, David A., and Joseph W. A. Whitehorne. The Inspectors General of the United States Army, 1777–1903 (1987).
Doyle, Joseph Beatty. Frederick William Von Steuben and the American Revolution: Aide to Washington and Inspector General of the Army (1913).
Lockhart, Paul. The Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army (2010) excerpt, a standard scholarly biography
Palmer, John MacAuley. General von Steuben (Yale UP, 1937).
Whitridge, Arnold. "Baron von Steuben, Washington's Drillmaster." History Today (July 1976) 26#7 pp 429–436.
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