Hepburn romanization

Last updated

James Curtis Hepburn, originator of Hepburn romanization James Curtis Hepburn.jpg
James Curtis Hepburn, originator of Hepburn romanization

Hepburn romanization (ヘボン式ローマ字, Hebon-shiki rōmaji, lit.  'Hepburn-style Roman letters ') is the most widely used system of romanization for the Japanese language. The system was originally published in 1867 by James Curtis Hepburn, an American Christian missionary, as the standard in the first edition of his Japanese–English dictionary. The system is distinct from other romanization methods in its use of English orthography to phonetically transcribe sounds: for example, the syllable [ɕi] (し) is written as shi and [tɕa] (ちゃ) is written as cha, reflecting their spellings in English (compare to si and tya in the more-systematic Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki systems).

Contents

In 1886, Hepburn published the third edition of his dictionary, codifying a revised version of the system that is known today as "traditional Hepburn". A version with additional revisions, known as "modified Hepburn", was published in 1908.

Although Kunrei-shiki romanization is the style favored by the Japanese government, Hepburn remains the most popular method of Japanese romanization. It is learned by most foreign students of the language, and is used within Japan for romanizing personal names, locations, and other information, such as train tables and road signs. Because the system's orthography is based on English phonology instead of a systematic transcription of the Japanese syllabary, individuals who do not speak Japanese will generally be more accurate when pronouncing unfamiliar words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems. [1]

History

In 1867, American Presbyterian missionary doctor James Curtis Hepburn published the first Japanese–English dictionary, in which he introduced a new system for the romanization of Japanese into Latin script. [2] He published a second edition in 1872 and a third edition in 1886, which introduced minor changes. [3] The third edition's system had been adopted in the previous year by the Rōmaji-kai (羅馬字会, "Romanization Club"), a group of Japanese and foreign scholars who promoted a replacement of the Japanese script with a romanized system. [4]

Hepburn romanization, loosely based on the conventions of English orthography (spelling), stood in opposition to Nihon-shiki romanization, which had been developed in Japan in 1881 as a script replacement. [4] Compared to Hepburn, Nihon-shiki is more systematic in its representation of the Japanese syllabary ( kana ), as each symbol corresponds to a phoneme. [5] However, the notation requires further explanation for accurate pronunciation by non-Japanese speakers: for example, the syllables [ɕi] and [tɕa] , which are written as shi and cha in Hepburn, are rendered as si and tya in Nihon-shiki. [4] After Nihon-shiki was presented to the Rōmaji-kai in 1886, a dispute began between the supporters of the two systems, which resulted in a standstill and an eventual halt to the organization's activities in 1892. [6]

After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the two factions resurfaced as the Rōmaji Hirome-kai (ローマ字ひろめ会, "Society for the Spread of Romanization"), which supported Hepburn's style, and the Nihon no Rōmaji-sha (日本のローマ字社, "Romanization Society of Japan"), which supported Nihon-shiki. [6] In 1908, Hepburn was revised by educator Kanō Jigorō and others of the Rōmaji Hirome-kai, which began calling it the Shūsei Hebon-shiki (修正ヘボン式, "modified Hepburn system") or Hyōjun-shiki (標準式, "standard system"). [4]

In 1930, a Special Romanization Study Commission, headed by the Minister of Education, was appointed by the government to devise a standardized form of romanization. [5] The Commission eventually decided on a slightly modified "compromise" version of Nihon-shiki, which was chosen for official use by cabinet ordinance on September 21, 1937; this system is known today as Kunrei-shiki romanization. [5] On September 3, 1945, at the beginning of the occupation of Japan after World War II, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Douglas MacArthur issued a directive mandating the use of modified Hepburn by occupation forces. [7] The directive had no legal force, however, and a revised version of Kunrei-shiki was reissued by cabinet ordinance on December 9, 1954, after the end of occupation. [8]

Although it lacks de jure status, Hepburn remains the de facto standard for some applications in Japan. As of 1977, many government organizations used Hepburn, including the Ministry of International Trade and Industry; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs requires the use of Hepburn on passports, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport requires its use on transport signs, including road signs and railway station signs. [9] Hepburn is also used by private organizations, including The Japan Times and the Japan Travel Bureau. [10]

American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese (ANSI Z39.11-1972), based on modified Hepburn, was approved in 1971 and published in 1972 by the American National Standards Institute. [11] In 1989, it was proposed for International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard 3602, but was rejected in favor of Kunrei-shiki.[ citation needed ] ANSI Z39.11-1972 was deprecated as a standard in 1994. [11]

Variants

Former Japan National Railways-style board of Toyooka Station. Between the two adjacent stations, "GEMBUDO" follows the Hepburn romanization system, but "KOKUHU" follows the Nihon-shiki/Kunrei-shiki romanization system. Toyooka Station Sign (cropped).jpg
Former Japan National Railways-style board of Toyooka Station. Between the two adjacent stations, "GEMBUDŌ" follows the Hepburn romanization system, but "KOKUHU" follows the Nihon-shiki/Kunrei-shiki romanization system.

There are many variants of the Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are as follows:

In Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses:

Details of the variants can be found below.

Obsolete variants

The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburn's dictionary are primarily of historical interest. Notable differences from the third and later versions include:

Features

The main feature of Hepburn is that its orthography is based on English phonology. More technically, when syllables that are constructed systematically according to the Japanese syllabary contain an "unstable" consonant in the modern spoken language, the orthography is changed to something that better matches the real sound as an English-speaker would pronounce it. For example, し is written shi not si. This transcription is thus only partly phonological.

Some linguists such as Harold E. Palmer, Daniel Jones and Otto Jespersen object to Hepburn since the pronunciation-based spellings can obscure the systematic origins of Japanese phonetic structures, inflections, and conjugations. [20] Since the vowel sounds in Hepburn are similar to the vowel sounds in Italian, and the consonants similar to those of many other languages, in particular English, speakers unfamiliar with Japanese will generally be more accurate when pronouncing unfamiliar words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems. [1]

Long vowels

In Hepburn, vowel combinations that form a long sound are usually indicated with a macron (◌̄). Other adjacent vowels, such as those separated by a morpheme boundary, are written separately:

Vowels part of the same morpheme
in traditional Hepburn [21] in modified Hepburn [22]
A + Aaa: お婆(ばあ)さん – obaasan 'grandmother'
(ba + a)		ā: お婆(ばあ)さん – obāsan 'grandmother'
(ba + a)
I + Iii: 新(にい)潟(がた) – Niigata
(ni + i)
U + Uū: 数(すう)学(がく) – sūgaku 'mathematics'
(su + u)
E + Eee: お姉(ねえ)さん – oneesan 'older sister'
(ne + e)		ē: お姉(ねえ)さん – onēsan 'older sister'
(ne + e)
O + Oō: 遠(とお)回(まわ)り – tōmawari 'detour'
(to + o)
O + Uō: 勉(べん)強(きょう) – benkyō 'study'
(kyo + u)
Vowels part of separate morphemes
In traditional [21] and modified Hepburn [22]
A + Aaa: 邪(じゃ)悪(あく) – ja + aku – jaaku 'evil'
I + Iii: 灰(はい)色(いろ) – hai + iro – haiiro 'grey'
(also terminal adjectives: いい – i + i – ii 'good')
U + Uuu: 湖(みずうみ) – mizu + umi – mizuumi 'lake'
(also terminal verbs: 食(く)う – ku + u – kuu 'to eat')
E + Eee: 濡(ぬ)れ縁(えん) – nure + en – nureen 'open veranda'
O + Ooo: 小(こ)躍(おど)り – ko + odori – koodori 'dance of joy'
O + Uou: 仔(こ)牛(うし) – ko + ushi – koushi 'calf'
(also terminal verbs: 迷(まよ)う – mayo + u – mayou 'to get lost')

All other vowel combinations are always written separately:

Loanwords

In foreign loanwords, long vowels followed by a chōonpu (ー) are indicated with macrons:

  • セーラー: se + (ー) + ra + (ー) = sērā 'sailor'
  • タクシー: ta + ku + shi + (ー) = takushī 'taxi'
  • コンクール: ko + n + ku + (ー) + ru = konkūru 'competition'
  • バレーボール: ba + re + (ー) + bo + (ー) + ru = barēbōru 'volleyball'
  • ソール: so + (ー) + ru = sōru 'sole (of a shoe, etc.)'

Adjacent vowels in loanwords are written separately:

  • バレエ: ba + re + e – baree 'ballet'
  • ミイラ: mi + i + ra – miira 'mummy'
  • ソウル: so + u + ru – souru 'soul', 'Seoul'

Variations

There are many variations on the Hepburn system for indicating long vowels with a macron. For example, 東京 (とうきょう) is properly romanized as Tōkyō, but can also be written as:

  • Tokyo – not indicated at all. Common for Japanese words that have been adopted into English, and the de facto convention for Hepburn used in signs and other English-language information around Japan.
  • Tôkyô – indicated with circumflex accents, as in the alternative Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanizations. They are often used when macrons are unavailable or difficult to input, due to their visual similarity. [23] [24]
  • Tohkyoh – indicated with an h (only applies after o). This is sometimes known as "passport Hepburn", as the Japanese Foreign Ministry has authorized (but not required) it in passports. [25] [26] [27]
  • Toukyou – written using kana spelling: ō as ou or oo (depending on the kana). This is also known as wāpuro style, as it reflects how text is entered into a Japanese word processor by using a keyboard with Roman characters. Wāpuro more accurately represents the way that ō is written in kana by differentiating between おう (as in とうきょう (東京), Toukyou in wāpuro) and おお (as in とおい (遠い), tooi in wāpuro); however, it fails to differentiate between long vowels and vowels separated by a morpheme boundary.
  • Tookyoo – written by doubling the long vowels. Some dictionaries such as the Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary [28] and Basic English Writers' Japanese-English Wordbook follow this style, and it is also used in the JSL form of romanization.

Particles

In traditional and modified:

In traditional Hepburn:

In modified Hepburn: [22]

Syllabic n

In traditional Hepburn: [21]

Syllabic n (ん) is written as n before consonants, but as m before labial consonants: b, m, and p. It is sometimes written as n- (with a hyphen) before vowels and y (to avoid confusion between, for example, んあn + a and なna, and んやn + ya and にゃnya), but its hyphen usage is not clear.

In modified Hepburn: [22]

The rendering m before labial consonants is not used and is replaced with n. It is written n' (with an apostrophe) before vowels and y.

Long consonants

Elongated (or "geminate") consonant sounds are marked by doubling the consonant following a sokuon, っ; for consonants that are digraphs in Hepburn (sh, ch, ts), only the first consonant of the set is doubled, except for ch, which is replaced by tch. [21] [22]

Romanization charts

Gojūon Yōon
あ ア aい イ iう ウ uえ エ eお オ o
か カ kaき キ kiく ク kuけ ケ keこ コ koきゃ キャ kyaきゅ キュ kyuきょ キョ kyo
さ サ saし シ shiす ス suせ セ seそ ソ soしゃ シャ shaしゅ シュ shuしょ ショ sho
た タ taち チ chiつ ツ tsuて テ teと ト toちゃ チャ chaちゅ チュ chuちょ チョ cho
な ナ naに ニ niぬ ヌ nuね ネ neの ノ noにゃ ニャ nyaにゅ ニュ nyuにょ ニョ nyo
は ハ haひ ヒ hiふ フ fuへ ヘ heほ ホ hoひゃ ヒャ hyaひゅ ヒュ hyuひょ ヒョ hyo
ま マ maみ ミ miむ ム muめ メ meも モ moみゃ ミャ myaみゅ ミュ myuみょ ミョ myo
や ヤ yaゆ ユ yuよ ヨ yo
ら ラ raり リ riる ル ruれ レ reろ ロ roりゃ リャ ryaりゅ リュ ryuりょ リョ ryo
わ ワ waゐ ヰ i †ゑ ヱ e †を ヲ o ‡
ん ン n /n'
が ガ gaぎ ギ giぐ グ guげ ゲ geご ゴ goぎゃ ギャ gyaぎゅ ギュ gyuぎょ ギョ gyo
ざ ザ zaじ ジ jiず ズ zuぜ ゼ zeぞ ゾ zoじゃ ジャ jaじゅ ジュ juじょ ジョ jo
だ ダ daぢ ヂ jiづ ヅ zuで デ deど ド doぢゃ ヂャ jaぢゅ ヂュ juぢょ ヂョ jo
ば バ baび ビ biぶ ブ buべ ベ beぼ ボ boびゃ ビャ byaびゅ ビュ byuびょ ビョ byo
ぱ パ paぴ ピ piぷ プ puぺ ペ peぽ ポ poぴゃ ピャ pyaぴゅ ピュ pyuぴょ ピョ pyo

Extended katakana

These combinations are used mainly to represent the sounds in words in other languages.

Digraphs with orange backgrounds are the general ones used for loanwords or foreign places or names, and those with blue backgrounds are used for more accurate transliterations of foreign sounds, both suggested by the Cabinet of Japan's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. [32] Katakana combinations with beige backgrounds are suggested by the American National Standards Institute [33] and the British Standards Institution as possible uses. [34] Ones with purple backgrounds appear on the 1974 version of the Hyōjun-shiki formatting. [29]

イィ yiイェ ye
ウァ wa*ウィ wiウゥ wu*ウェ weウォ wo
ウュ wyu
ヴァ vaヴィ viヴ vu⁑ヴェ veヴォ vo
ヴャ vyaヴュ vyuヴィェ vyeヴョ vyo
キェ kye
ギェ gye
クァ kwaクィ kwiクェ kweクォ kwo
クヮ kwa
グァ gwaグィ gwiグェ gweグォ gwo
グヮ gwa
シェ she
ジェ je
スィ si
ズィ zi
チェ che
ツァ tsaツィ tsiツェ tseツォ tso
ツュ tsyu
ティ tiトゥ tu
テュ tyu
ディ diドゥ du
デュ dyu
ニェ nye
ヒェ hye
ビェ bye
ピェ pye
ファ faフィ fiフェ feフォ fo
フャ fyaフュ fyuフィェ fyeフョ fyo
ホゥ hu
ミェ mye
リェ rye
ラ゚ laリ゚ liル゚ luレ゚ leロ゚ lo
ヷ va⁂ヸ vi⁂ヹ ve⁂ヺ vo⁂

See also

Related Research Articles

Hiragana is a Japanese syllabary, part of the Japanese writing system, along with katakana as well as kanji.

Katakana is a Japanese syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana, kanji and in some cases the Latin script.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Romanization</span> Transliteration or transcription to Latin characters

Romanization or romanisation, in linguistics, is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, and combinations of both. Transcription methods can be subdivided into phonemic transcription, which records the phonemes or units of semantic meaning in speech, and more strict phonetic transcription, which records speech sounds with precision.

Kunrei-shiki romanization is the Cabinet-ordered romanization system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki rômazi in the system itself. Kunrei-shiki is sometimes known as the Monbushō system in English because it is taught in the Monbushō-approved elementary school curriculum. The ISO has standardized Kunrei-shiki, under ISO 3602.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese language and computers</span>

In relation to the Japanese language and computers many adaptation issues arise, some unique to Japanese and others common to languages which have a very large number of characters. The number of characters needed in order to write in English is quite small, and thus it is possible to use only one byte (28=256 possible values) to encode each English character. However, the number of characters in Japanese is many more than 256 and thus cannot be encoded using a single byte - Japanese is thus encoded using two or more bytes, in a so-called "double byte" or "multi-byte" encoding. Problems that arise relate to transliteration and romanization, character encoding, and input of Japanese text.

JSL is a romanization system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin script. It was devised by Eleanor Jorden for her 1987 book Japanese: The Spoken Language. The system is based on Kunrei-shiki romanization. Japanese Yale is a less well-known alternative name for the JSL system.

Nihon-shiki, is a romanization system for transliterating the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. Among the major romanization systems for Japanese, it is the most regular one and has an almost one-to-one relation to the kana writing system.

Polivanov system is a system of transliterating the Japanese language into Russian Cyrillic script, either to represent Japanese proper names or terms in Russian or as an aid to Japanese language learning in those languages. The system was developed by Yevgeny Polivanov in 1917.

Wāpuro rōmaji (ワープロローマ字), or kana spelling, is a style of romanization of Japanese originally devised for entering Japanese into word processors while using a Western QWERTY keyboard.

The sokuon is a Japanese symbol in the form of a small hiragana or katakana tsu. In less formal language it is called chiisai tsu (小さいつ) or chiisana tsu (小さなつ), meaning "small tsu". It serves multiple purposes in Japanese writing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese input method</span> Methods used to input Japanese characters on a computer

Japanese input methods are used to input Japanese characters on a computer.

し, in hiragana, or シ in katakana, is one of the Japanese kana, which each represent one mora. Both represent the phonemes, reflected in the Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanization si, although for phonological reasons, the actual pronunciation is [ɕi](listen), which is reflected in the Hepburn romanization shi. The shapes of these kana have origins in the character 之. The katakana form has become increasingly popular as an emoticon in the Western world due to its resemblance to a smiling face.

ち, in hiragana, or チ in katakana, is one of the Japanese kana, which each represent one mora. Both are phonemically, reflected in the Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanization ti, although, for phonological reasons, the actual pronunciation is [t͡ɕi](listen), which is reflected in the Hepburn romanization chi.

Tsu is one of the Japanese kana, each of which represents one mora. Both are phonemically, reflected in the Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanization tu, although for phonological reasons, the actual pronunciation is [t͡sɯᵝ](listen), reflected in the Hepburn romanization tsu.

ふ, in hiragana, or フ in katakana, is one of the Japanese kana, each of which represents one mora. The hiragana is made in four strokes, while the katakana in one. It represents the phoneme, although for phonological reasons, the actual pronunciation is [ɸɯᵝ](listen), which is why it is romanized fu in Hepburn romanization instead of hu as in Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki rōmaji. Written with a dakuten, they both represent a "bu" sound, and written with handakuten they both represent a "pu" sound.

を, in hiragana, or ヲ in katakana, is one of the Japanese kana, each of which represents one mora. The combination of a W-column kana letter with を゙ in hiragana was introduced to represent [vo] in the 19th century and 20th century.

Language input keys, which are usually found on Japanese and Korean keyboards, are keys designed to translate letters using an input method editor (IME). On non-Japanese or Korean keyboard layouts using an IME, these functions can usually be reproduced via hotkeys, though not always directly corresponding to the behavior of these keys.

The romanization of Japanese is the use of Latin script to write the Japanese language. This method of writing is sometimes referred to in Japanese as rōmaji.

In contemporary Japanese writing, foreign-language loanwords and foreign names are normally written in the katakana script, which is one component of the Japanese writing system. As far as possible, sounds in the source language are matched to the nearest sounds in the Japanese language, and the result is transcribed using standard katakana characters, each of which represents one syllable. For example, America is written アメリカ (A-me-ri-ka). To accommodate various foreign-language sounds not present in Japanese, a system of extended katakana has also developed to augment standard katakana.

This article explains the transcription of the Japanese language in the Esperanto alphabet. Esperantists often use non-Esperanto transcriptions, such as Hepburn and Kunrei. However, the need for a transcription in the Esperanto alphabet is essential for non-Japanese speaking Esperantists to be able to pronounce words.

References

  1. 1 2 Hadamitzky, Wolfgang; Spahn, Mark (October 2005). "Romanization systems". Wolfgang Hadamitzky: Japan-related Textbooks, Dictionaries, and Reference Works. Archived from the original on January 24, 2017. Retrieved August 10, 2017.
  2. ↑ Sant, John Van; Mauch, Peter; Sugita, Yoneyuki (January 29, 2007). Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan Relations. Scarecrow Press. p. 104. ISBN   978-0-8108-6462-7. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  3. ↑ Nishiyama, Kunio; Kishimoto, Hideki; Aldridge, Edith, eds. (December 15, 2018). Topics in Theoretical Asian Linguistics: Studies in Honor of John B. Whitman. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 292. ISBN   978-90-272-6329-2. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Seeley, Christopher (April 1, 2000). A History of Writing in Japan. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 139–140. ISBN   978-0-8248-2217-0. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  5. 1 2 3 Unger, J. Marshall (August 1, 1996). Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading Between the Lines. Oxford University Press. pp. 53–55. ISBN   978-0-19-510166-9. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  6. 1 2 Hannas, William C. (June 1, 1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. p. 42. ISBN   978-0-8248-1892-0. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  7. ↑ Unger, J. Marshall (August 1, 1996). Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading Between the Lines. Oxford University Press. p. 78. ISBN   978-0-19-510166-9. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  8. ↑ Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, Volume 6. Kodansha. 1983. p. 336. ISBN   978-0-87011-626-1.
  9. ↑ Visconti, Jacqueline (September 24, 2018). Handbook of Communication in the Legal Sphere. De Gruyter. p. 454. ISBN   978-1-61451-466-4. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  10. ↑ Kent, Allen; Lancour, Harold; Daily, Jay E., eds. (May 1, 1977). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 21. CRC Press. p. 155. ISBN   978-0-8247-2021-6. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved October 18, 2016.
  11. 1 2 3 Kudo, Yoko (January 28, 2011). "Modified Hepburn Romanization System in Japanese Language Cataloging: Where to Look, What to Follow" (pdf). Cataloging & Classification Quarterly. 49 (2): 97–120. doi:10.1080/01639374.2011.536751. S2CID   62560768. Archived from the original on December 29, 2021. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
  12. ↑ 和英語林集成第三版 [Digital 'Japanese English Forest Collection']. Meiji Gakuin University Library (in Japanese). Meiji Gakuin University. March 2010 [2006]. Archived from the original on October 22, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2017.
  13. ↑ "明治学院大学図書館 - 『和英語林集成』デジタルアーカイブス". Meijigakuin.ac.jp. Archived from the original on December 16, 2013. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
  14. ↑ "UHM Library : Japan Collection Online Resources". Hawaii.edu. October 6, 2005. Archived from the original on February 26, 2021. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
  15. ↑ "鉄道掲示基準規程". Homepage1.nifty.com. Archived from the original on March 1, 2012. Retrieved July 13, 2012.
  16. ↑ 道路標識のローマ字（ヘボン式） の綴り方 [How to spell Roman letters (Hepburn style) of road signs]. Kictec (in Japanese). June 14, 2012. Archived from the original on April 20, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2017.
  17. ↑ "ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Archived from the original on August 10, 2022. Retrieved May 16, 2022.
  18. ↑ James Curtis Hepburn (1872). A Japanese-English And English-Japanese Dictionary (2nd ed.). American Presbyterian mission press. pp. 286–290. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved December 16, 2013.
  19. ↑ Hepburn, J. C. (James Curtis) (December 10, 1872). "Japanese-English and English-Japanese dictionary". Shanghai, American Presbyterian mission press – via Internet Archive.
  20. ↑ 松浦四郎 (October 1992). "104年かかった標準化". 標準化と品質菅理 -Standardization and Quality Control. Japanese Standards Association. 45: 92–93.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 James Curtis Hepburn (1886). A Japanese-English And English-Japanese Dictionary (Third ed.). Z. P Maruyama & Co. Retrieved April 12, 2011.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary (Fourth ed.). Kenkyūsha. 1974.
  23. 1 2 Fujino Katsuji (1909). ローマ字手引き[RÔMAJI TEBIKI] (in Japanese). Rômaji-Hirome-kai.
  24. ↑ Cabinet of Japan (December 9, 1954). 昭和29年内閣告示第1号 ローマ字のつづり方 [Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 in 1954 - How to write Romanization] (in Japanese). Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Archived from the original on May 29, 2013. Retrieved May 19, 2011.
  25. ↑ Bureau of Citizens and Culture Affairs of Tokyo. "PASSPORT_ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表" [Table of Spelling in Hepburn Romanization] (in Japanese). Archived from the original on December 5, 2011. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
  26. ↑ Consulate-General of Japan in San Francisco. ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表 [Table of Spelling in Hepburn Romanization](PDF) (in Japanese). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 13, 2012. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
  27. ↑ Consulate-General of Japan in Detroit. "Example of Application Form for Passport" (PDF) (in Japanese). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
  28. ↑ Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary. "Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary (9780198607489): Shigeru Takebayashi, Kazuhiko Nagai: Books". Amazon.com. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
  29. 1 2 "標準式ローマ字つづり―引用". Archived from the original on October 22, 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2016.[ self-published source ]
  30. 1 2 Cabinet of Japan (November 16, 1946). 昭和21年内閣告示第33号 「現代かなづかい」 [Japanese Cabinet Order No.33 in 1946 - Modern kana usage] (in Japanese). Archived from the original on October 6, 2001. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
  31. 1 2 Cabinet of Japan (July 1, 1986). 昭和61年内閣告示第1号 「現代仮名遣い」 [Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 in 1986 - Modern kana usage] (in Japanese). Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Archived from the original on May 24, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
  32. ↑ Cabinet of Japan. "平成3年6月28日内閣告示第2号:外来語の表記" [Japanese cabinet order No.2 (June 28, 1991):The notation of loanword]. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
  33. ↑ "米国規格(ANSI Z39.11-1972)―要約". Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2016.[ self-published source ]
  34. ↑ "英国規格(BS 4812 : 1972)―要約". Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2016.[ self-published source ]
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.