History of the kisaeng

Last updated March 14, 2024

The history of the kisaeng covers the entire second millennium from the Goryeo dynasty to modern South Korea. The kisaeng system first emerged in the early Goryeo period and was at its height in the middle Joseon Dynasty. The kisaeng contributed to the entertainment of others such as the Yangbans and kings. Some kisaeng also held positions of importance in the court and in the literary culture.

A strange silence hangs over the official history of Korea when it comes to the kisaeng. They enter only occasionally into official records such as the Goryeosa or Joseon Wangjo Sillok . Yet references to kisaeng are quite widespread in the "anecdotal histories" of later Joseon and Silhak thinkers such as Yi Ik and Dasan where they gave some thought to their role and station in society. Even today, many formal histories of Korea pay very little or no heed to the story of the kisaeng. For example, Ki-baek Lee's New History of Korea does not contain a single reference to the kisaeng.

Origins

There are various theories concerning the origin of the kisaeng. The first such theory was formulated by the scholar Dasan and theories have multiplied as the kisaeng themselves have receded into the past.

One theory actually places their origins in the Silla dynasty, among the wonhwa , female predecessors of the hwarang. However, there is little to suggest a concrete link between Silla's wonhwa and the later kisaeng. Also, the wonhwa seem to have been chosen from among the aristocracy, whereas kisaeng were always members of the lower classes. For these reasons, few contemporary scholars support this theory.

Many others trace their origins to the early years of Goryeo, when many people were displaced following the end of the Later Three Kingdoms period in 936. At this time, a large number of Baekje people wandered the country. It is not clear whether this nomadic lifestyle was already established, or a consequence of the recent turmoil. In fact, a connection between these wanderers and the nomadic tribes of Manchuria has been conjectured. The first king of Goryeo, Taejo, considered these wanderers to be a threat to the stability of the state. He ordered that they be made into slaves of the government. Although no records exist, it is likely that the first kisaeng were drawn from these wanderers.

Goryeo

Regardless of their origins, the kisaeng first emerged as a class and rose to prominence during the Goryeo Dynasty, 935–1394. They are first mentioned in the early 11th century. At this time, they were primarily engaged in skilled trades such as needlework, music, and medicine. The female entertainers of the court during this period filled a role similar to that later filled by almost all kisaeng.

Due to the growth of the kisaeng class, during the reign of Myeongjong, the state began to keep records (called gijeok ) of the kisaeng living in each jurisdiction. Around this time, the state also made efforts to set up educational institutions to train kisaeng entertainers. These academies were known as gyobang and first appear in history with their abolition by King Hyeonjong in 1010. However, they were re-established in the reign of Chungnyeol. The gyobang provided training in the dangak and sogak musical styles.

The women trained in the gyobang were exclusively court entertainers. Their role in the affairs of the court became increasingly important as the dynasty progressed. They entertained both the king and visiting dignitaries, a role which continued into the Joseon period. In addition, beginning in the reign of Munjong, they performed at official ceremonies of the state.

Just as the origin of the kisaeng is unclear, so is their precise relation to other strata of society. The female entertainers who appear in records are exclusively kisaeng of the court and are recorded as slaves of the government.

Joseon

Kisaeng in Pyongyang, 1890. Pyongyangkisaeng.gif — Kisaeng in Pyongyang, 1890.

Goryeo was succeeded by the Joseon Dynasty, 1394–1910. During the Joseon dynasty, the kisaeng system continued to flourish and develop, despite the government's deeply ambivalent attitude toward it.

Joseon was founded on Neo-Confucian ideals and the Neo-Confucian scholars of the time took a very dim view of professional women and of the kisaeng class. There were many calls for the abolition of the kisaeng and for their exclusion from court, but these calls were not successful, perhaps because of the influence of the women themselves or perhaps because of fear that officials would take to stealing the wives of other men.

One such proposal was made during the reign of Sejong, but when an advisor of the court suggested that the abolition of the class would lead to government officials committing grave crimes, the king chose to preserve the kisaeng.

During the brief and violent reign of Yeonsan-gun, 1494–1506, kisaeng became symbolic of royal excess. Yeonsan-gun treated women as primarily objects of pleasure and made even the medicinal women into entertainers (yakbang gisaeng). Yeonsan-gun brought 1,000 women and girls from the provinces to serve as palace kisaeng; many of them were paid from the public treasury. Yeonsan-gun may have been the first to institute a formal hierarchy among them, dividing the kisaeng of the palace into "Heaven," those with whom he slept, and "Earth," those who served other functions.

In 1650, all kisaeng were made slaves of the government. The kisaeng who were attached to a government office were known as gwan-gi, or "kisaeng of the office." Their role, did not by law, include sexual service to the officeholder; in fact, government officials could be severely punished for consorting with a kisaeng. However, in practice, kisaeng were often forced to serve the officeholder. A distinction was sometimes made between those gwan-gi who were obliged to sleep with the officeholder and those who were not. This distinction was featured in the popular play Chunhyangga .

The Gabo Reform of 1895 officially abolished the class system of Joseon along with slavery. From 1895 moving forward, all kisaeng became nominally free. In practice, many kisaeng like many other slaves, continued in servitude for years. In addition, many of those who were freed had no alternative career; they continued as entertainers without the protections afforded by the kisaeng status. During the subsequent decades, many of these kisaeng went to Japan to work.

Notes

^ Remarked upon by Ahn (2000b), p. 79.
^ Specifically during the reigns of Hyeonjong and Munjong (Hwang 1997, p. 450).
^ This was asserted by Yi Neung-hwa, author of the first history of the kisaeng (Hwang 1997, p. 449).
^ Hwang 1997, loc. cit.
^ The Silhak scholar Dasan traced the origin of the class to Myeongjong's creation of the gijeok , but most contemporary scholars believe that the class had already emerged earlier in the dynasty (Hwang 1997, p. 450).
^ Kim (1976), p. 54.
^ Song (1999), p. 35.
^ Kim (1976), pp. 54–55.
^ Kim (1976), p. 55.
^ Kim (1976), p. 139.
^ Hwang (1997), p. 450. The advisor was Heo Jong.
^ Kim (1976), p. 138.
^ Kim (1976), p. 139.
^ Hwang (1997), p. 451.
^ Breen (2004), p. 88.
^ So asserted by Ahn (2000a), p. 94.
^ Hwang (1997), p. 452. According to Hwang, he terms used were 겉수청, or "surface government servants," and 살수청, or "flesh government servants."
^ Hwang (1997). However, according to Ahn (2000a, p. 298), Chunhyang could refuse the magistrate's advances because her body-price had already been paid and her name had been removed from the gijeok , meaning she was no longer a kisaeng.
^ Mentioned in a U.S. News & World Report article of 1999, quoted here: ^[permanent dead link ].

Related Research Articles

Daegu, formerly spelled Taegu and officially Daegu Metropolitan City, is a city in southeastern South Korea.

Joseon, officially Great Joseon State, was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom was founded following the aftermath of the overthrow of Goryeo in what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul. The kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the rivers of Amnok and Tuman through the subjugation of the Jurchens.

Korean court music comprises three main musical genres: aak, an imported form of Chinese ritual music; a pure Korean form called hyangak; and a combination of Chinese and Korean styles called dangak.

Sijo is a Korean traditional poetic form that emerged during the Goryeo dynasty, flourished during the Joseon dynasty, and is still written today. Bucolic, metaphysical, and cosmological themes are often explored. The three lines average 14–16 syllables, for a total of 42–48: theme ; elaboration (3,4,4,4); counter-theme (3,5) and completion (4,3).

Jeong Do-jeon, also known by his art name Sambong (삼봉), was a prominent Korean scholar-official during the late Goryeo to the early Joseon periods. He served as the first Chief State Councillor of Joseon, from 1392 until 1398 when he was killed by the Joseon king Yi Bang-won. Jeong Dojeon was an adviser to the Joseon founder Yi Seong-gye and also the principal architect of the Joseon dynasty's policies, laying down the kingdom's ideological, institutional, and legal frameworks which would govern it for five centuries.

The hanbok is a traditional clothing of the Korean people. The term hanbok is primarily used by South Koreans; North Koreans refer to the clothes as chosŏn-ot. The clothes are also worn in the Korean diaspora, especially by Koreans in China.

Yeonsangun or Prince Yeonsan, personal name Yi Yung, was the 10th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's history and perhaps all Korean history, he is notorious for launching two bloody purges, seizing hundreds of women from all over the peninsula to serve as palace entertainers, and appropriating Sungkyunkwan as a personal pleasure ground. Yeonsangun's despotic rule provided a stark contrast to the liberal era of his father, and as a much-despised overthrown monarch, he did not receive a temple name.

<i>Kisaeng</i> Historical female slave courtesans in Korea

Kisaeng, also called ginyeo, were enslaved women from outcast or enslaved families who were trained to be courtesans, providing artistic entertainment and conversation to men of upper class. First appearing in Goryeo, kisaeng were the government's legal entertainers, required to perform various functions for the state. Many were employed at court, but they were also spread throughout the country. They were carefully trained and frequently accomplished in the fine arts, poetry, and prose, and although they were of low social class, they were respected as educated artists. Aside from entertainment, their roles included medical care and needlework.

Hwang Jini or Hwang Jin-yi, also known by her kisaeng name Myeongwol, was one of the most famous kisaeng of the Joseon Dynasty. She lived during the reign of King Jungjong. She was noted for her exceptional beauty, charming quick wit, extraordinary intellect, and her assertive and independent nature. She has become an almost myth-like figure in modern Korea, inspiring novels, operas, films, and television series.

Cheonmin, or "vulgar commoners", were the lowest caste of commoners in dynastical Korea. They abounded during the Goryeo (918–1392) and Joseon (1392–1897) periods of Korea's agrarian bureaucracy.

Gwonbeon (Korean: 권번) were institutions set up for the training and oversight of kisaeng and other entertainers in the early 20th century. They were the successors of the gyobang, government-supported institutions which had provided such education and oversight in the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties.

Aengmu was the working name of a famed kisaeng of Daegu in the early 20th century. The name literally means "parrot." She was a leading donor to the National Debt Repayment Movement, a campaign that aimed to keep Korea out of Japanese control by reducing Korea's debt to Japan.

The gijeok (Korean: 기적) was a list of all the kisaeng working in a particular district. It was maintained by the local chief, or hojang. Those not on the list were not permitted to work as kisaeng; those on it were required to. A kisaeng's name could only be removed from the gijeok if she reached retirement age, was purchased, or died.

Throughout and before recorded history, Daegu has served as a nexus of transportation, lying as it does at the junction of the Geumho and Nakdong rivers. During the Joseon dynasty, the city was the administrative, economic and cultural centre of the entire Gyeongsang region, a role largely taken over now by Busan in South Gyeongsang Province.

The gwageo (Korean: 과거) or kwagŏ were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo (918–1392) and Joseon (1392–1897) periods of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese classics. The form of writing varied from literature to proposals on management of the state. Technical subjects were also tested to appoint experts on medicine, interpretation, accounting, law etc. These were the primary route for most people to achieve positions in the bureaucracy.

Uinyeo were female physicians who specialized in the treatment of women during the Joseon period of Korea. The uinyeo were established as a solution to social taboos against women receiving treatment from male physicians. The uinyeo system first appeared in 1406 after King Taejong ordered its establishment in the Jesaengwon.

Korean clans of foreign origin refers to Korean clans that claim descent from a progenitor of foreign origin, based on genealogical records.

Joseon Susinsa is the term for diplomatic missions from Joseon to the Empire of Japan after Korea's forced opening in 1876. As the hegemony of East Asia was transferred from China to the Western powers, relations between Joseon and the Japanese empires were reversed, and Joseon's goodwill mission called "Tongsinsa" was changed to the term "Susinsa" meaning "receiver of advanced culture". They were dispatched on three occasions from 1876 to 1882.

Royal Consort Jeong of the Juksan Ahn clan was the 5th wife of King Gongmin of Goryeo. She was also known by her Dharma name as Deok-wol and by her new royal title as Princess Uihwa given by Taejo of Joseon in 1392.

References

Ahn, Gil-jeong (안길정) (2000). 조선시대 생활사 (Joseon Sidae Saenghwalsa) (Lifestyle history of the Joseon period). Seoul: Sakyejul. ISBN 89-7196-701-3. (In two volumes).
Breen, Michael (2004). The Koreans (rev. ed.) . New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-32609-2.
Daegu-Gyeongbuk Historical Research Society (대구-경북 역사연구회) (1999). 역사 속의 대구, 대구 사람들 (Yeoksa sogui Daegu, Daegu saramdeul) (Daegu and its people in history). Seoul: Jungsim. ISBN 89-89524-09-1.
Hwang, Won-gap (황원갑) (1997). 한국사를 바꾼 여인들 (Hanguksareul bakkun yeonindeul) (The women who changed Korean history). Seoul: 책이있는마을. ISBN 89-5639-014-2.
Kawamura, Minato (2001). 기생: 말하는 꽃 (Gisaeng: Malhaneun kkot) (Kisaeng: The speaking flowers). Seoul: Sodam. ISBN 89-7381-474-5. (Tr. from Japanese original)
Kim, Dong-uk. (1963). Women's literary achievements (Yi Dynasty). Korea Journal 3(11), 33–36.
Kim, Kichung (1996). An introduction to classical Korean literature from hyangga to p'ansori. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe.
Kim, Yung Chung (1976). Women of Korea: A history from ancient times to 1945. Seoul: Ewha Womans University Press. ISBN 89-7300-116-7.
Lee, Younghee (2002). Ideology, culture and han: Traditional and early modern Korean women's literature. Seoul: Jimoondang. ISBN 89-88095-43-X.
McCann, David. (1977). Traditional world of kisaeng. Korea Journal 14(2), 40–43.
Song, Bang-song (1999). Korean music: Historical and other aspects. Seoul: Jimoondang. ISBN 89-88095-13-8.