Hyperlocomotion

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Hyperlocomotion, also known as locomotor hyperactivity, hyperactivity, or increased locomotor activity, is an effect of certain drugs in animals in which locomotor activity is increased. [1] It is induced by certain drugs like psychostimulants and NMDA receptor antagonists and is reversed by certain other drugs like antipsychotics and certain antidepressants. [1] [2] [3] [4]

Contents

Drugs inducing and reversing hyperlocomotion

Hyperlocomotion is an effect induced by dopamine releasing agents and psychostimulants like amphetamine and methamphetamine and by NMDA receptor antagonists and dissociative hallucinogens like dizocilpine (MK-801) and phencyclidine (PCP). [1] [2] [3] [5] Stimulation of locomotor activity is thought to be mediated by increased signaling in the nucleus accumbens. [6] [7]

Drug-induced hyperlocomotion can be reversed by various drugs, such as antipsychotics acting as dopamine D2 receptor antagonists. [1] [3] Reversal of drug-induced hyperlocomotion has been used as an animal test of drug antipsychotic-like activity. [1] [3] Amphetamines and NMDA receptor antagonists likewise induce stereotypies, and reversal of these stereotypies is also employed as a test of drug antipsychotic-like activity. [1] [3]

Certain antidepressants, including the dopamine reuptake inhibitors amineptine, bupropion, and nomifensine, also increase spontaneous locomotor activity in animals. [4] [8] Conversely, most other antidepressants do not do so, and instead often actually show behavioral sedation in this test. [4] [6] [9] The dopamine reuptake inhibitor cocaine increases locomotor activity similarly to amphetamines. [5] Atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitors like modafinil do not produce hyperlocomotion in animals. [5] Direct dopamine receptor agonists like apomorphine show biphasic effects, decreasing locomotor activity at low doses and increasing locomotor activity at high doses. [6]

Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor antagonists like volinanserin (MDL-100907) counteract the hyperactivity induced by amphetamine, cocaine, and NMDA receptor antagonists in animals. [10] [11] [12] Certain non-selective serotonin 5-HT2A receptor antagonists, like trazodone, have been found to decrease locomotor and behavioral activity and to inhibit amphetamine-induced hyperactivity in animals similarly. [13] [14] [15] [16] [4] In addition to serotonin 5-HT2A receptor antagonists, serotonin 5-HT2A receptor biased agonists that selectively activate the β-arrestin pathway but not the Gq pathway, like 25N-N1-Nap, have been found to antagonize PCP-induced locomotor hyperactivity in rodents. [10]

Certain serotonin releasing agents, like MDMA and MDAI, though notably not others, like chlorphentermine, fenfluramine, and MMAI, [17] [18] [19] induce locomotor hyperactivity in animals. [20] [21] [22] [23] This is dependent on serotonin release allowed for by the serotonin transporter (SERT) and serotonin 5-HT2B receptor. [24] [21] [22] [25] [26] SERT knockout, pretreatment with serotonin reuptake inhibitors (which block MDMA-induced SERT-mediated serotonin release), or serotonin 5-HT2B receptor knockout (which likewise blocks MDMA-induced serotonin release) all completely block MDMA-induced locomotor hyperactivity. [24] [21] [22] [25] [26] In addition, locomotor hyperactivity produced by MDMA is partially attenuated by serotonin 5-HT1B receptor antagonism (or knockout) [24] [27] [28] or by serotonin 5-HT2A receptor antagonism. [29] [30] [31] The locomotor hyperactivity produced by MDMA is fully attenuated by combined serotonin 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptor antagonism. [30] Conversely, the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor is not involved in MDMA-induced hyperlocomotion. [21] Serotonin 5-HT2C receptor activation appears to inhibit MDMA-induced hyperlocomotion and antagonism of this receptor has been reported to markedly enhance the locomotor hyperactivity induced by MDMA. [31] [30] [32] [33] Activation of the serotonin 5-HT2C receptor is known to strongly inhibit dopamine release in the mesolimbic pathway as well as inhibit dopamine release in the nigrostriatal and mesocortical pathways. [34] [35] [31] [36] The reasons for the differences in locomotor activity with different serotonin releasing agents are unclear. [31]

Non-selective muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists, or antimuscarinics, such as atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine, produce robust hyperactivity in animals, but also produce deliriant effects such as amnesia and hallucinations in both animals and humans. [37] [38]

Similar effects

Other similar effects include stereotypy, exploratory behavior, climbing behavior, and jumping behavior. [39] [2] [3] Amphetamines induce stereotypies in addition to hyperlocomotion. [2] [3] Apomorphine induces stereotypy and climbing behavior. [2] The dopamine precursor levodopa (L-DOPA) induces jumping behavior. [2] These effects can all be reversed by antipsychotics. [2]

See also

Related Research Articles

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Empathogens or entactogens are a class of psychoactive drugs that induce the production of experiences of emotional communion, oneness, relatedness, emotional openness—that is, empathy or sympathy—as particularly observed and reported for experiences with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This class of drug is distinguished from the classes of hallucinogen or psychedelic, and amphetamine or stimulants. Major members of this class include MDMA, MDA, MDEA, MDOH, MBDB, 5-APB, 5-MAPB, 6-APB, 6-MAPB, methylone, mephedrone, GHB, αMT, and αET, MDAI among others. Most entactogens are phenethylamines and amphetamines, although several, such as αMT and αET, are tryptamines. When referring to MDMA and its counterparts, the term MDxx is often used. Entactogens are sometimes incorrectly referred to as hallucinogens or stimulants, although many entactogens such as ecstasy exhibit psychedelic or stimulant properties as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine</span> Empathogen-entactogen, psychostimulant, and psychedelic drug of the amphetamine family

3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), sometimes referred to as “sass,” is an empathogen-entactogen, stimulant, and psychedelic drug of the amphetamine family that is encountered mainly as a recreational drug. In its pharmacology, MDA is a serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agent (SNDRA). In most countries, the drug is a controlled substance and its possession and sale are illegal.

α-Ethyltryptamine Chemical compound

α-Ethyltryptamine, also known as etryptamine, is an entactogen and stimulant drug of the tryptamine family. It was originally developed and marketed as an antidepressant under the brand name Monase by Upjohn in the 1960s before being withdrawn due to toxicity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trazodone</span> Antidepressant medication

Trazodone, sold under many brand names, is an antidepressant medication, used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and insomnia. It is a phenylpiperazine compound of the serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor (SARI) class. The medication is taken orally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dopaminergic</span> Substance related to dopamine functions

Dopaminergic means "related to dopamine", a common neurotransmitter. Dopaminergic substances or actions increase dopamine-related activity in the brain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serotonin receptor agonist</span> Neurotransmission-modulating substance

A serotonin receptor agonist is an agonist of one or more serotonin receptors. They activate serotonin receptors in a manner similar to that of serotonin, a neurotransmitter and hormone and the endogenous ligand of the serotonin receptors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molindone</span> Antipsychotic medication

Molindone, sold under the brand name Moban, is an antipsychotic medication which is used in the United States in the treatment of schizophrenia. It is taken by mouth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naphthylaminopropane</span> Chemical compound

Naphthylaminopropane (PAL-287) is an experimental drug under investigation as of 2007 for the treatment of alcohol and stimulant addiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuciferine</span> Chemical compound

Nuciferine is an alkaloid found within the plants Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera.

5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor Serotonin receptor protein distributed in the cerebrum and raphe nucleus

The serotonin 1A receptor is a subtype of serotonin receptors, or 5-HT receptors, that binds serotonin, also known as 5-HT, a neurotransmitter. 5-HT1A is expressed in the brain, spleen, and neonatal kidney. It is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), coupled to the Gi protein, and its activation in the brain mediates hyperpolarization and reduction of firing rate of the postsynaptic neuron. In humans, the serotonin 1A receptor is encoded by the HTR1A gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LY-341495</span> Chemical compound

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">MDAI</span> Chemical compound

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monoamine releasing agent</span> Class of compounds

A monoamine releasing agent (MRA), or simply monoamine releaser, is a drug that induces the release of a monoamine neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron into the synapse, leading to an increase in the extracellular concentrations of the neurotransmitter. Many drugs induce their effects in the body and/or brain via the release of monoamine neurotransmitters, e.g., trace amines, many substituted amphetamines, and related compounds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MMAI</span> Chemical compound

5-Methoxy-6-methyl-2-aminoindane (MMAI) is a drug of the 2-aminoindane group developed in the 1990s by a team led by David E. Nichols at Purdue University. It acts as a non-neurotoxic and highly selective serotonin releasing agent (SSRA) and produces entactogenic effects in humans. It has been sold as a designer drug and research chemical online since 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volinanserin</span> Chemical compound

Volinanserin (INN) is a highly selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist that is frequently used in scientific research to investigate the function of the 5-HT2A receptor. It was also tested in clinical trials as a potential antipsychotic, antidepressant, and treatment for insomnia but was never marketed.

A serenic, or anti-aggressive drug, is a type of drug which reduces the capacity for aggression.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sonepiprazole</span> Chemical compound

Sonepiprazole (U-101,387, PNU-101,387-G) is a drug of the phenylpiperazine class which acts as a highly selective D4 receptor antagonist. In animals, unlike D2 receptor antagonists like haloperidol, sonepiprazole does not block the behavioral effects of amphetamine or apomorphine, does not alter spontaneous locomotor activity on its own, and lacks extrapyramidal and neuroendocrine effects. However, it does reverse the prepulse inhibition deficits induced by apomorphine, and has also been shown to enhance cortical activity and inhibit stress-induced cognitive impairment. As a result, it was investigated as an antipsychotic for the treatment of schizophrenia in a placebo-controlled clinical trial, but in contrast to its comparator olanzapine no benefits were found and it was not researched further for this indication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UWA-101</span> Chemical compound

UWA-101 is a phenethylamine derivative researched as a potential treatment for Parkinson's disease. Its chemical structure is very similar to that of the illegal drug MDMA, the only difference being the replacement of the α-methyl group with an α-cyclopropyl group. MDMA has been found in animal studies and reported in unauthorised human self-experiments to be effective in the short-term relief of side-effects of Parkinson's disease therapy, most notably levodopa-induced dyskinesia. However the illegal status of MDMA and concerns about its potential for recreational use, neurotoxicity and potentially dangerous side effects mean that it is unlikely to be investigated for medical use in this application, and so alternative analogues were investigated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conditioned avoidance response test</span> Test of antipsychotic-like activity

The conditioned avoidance response (CAR) test, also known as the active avoidance test, is an animal test used to identify drugs with antipsychotic-like effects. It is most commonly employed as a two-way active avoidance test with rodents. The test assesses the conditioned ability of an animal to avoid an unpleasant stimulus. Drugs that selectively suppress conditioned avoidance responses without affecting escape behavior are considered to have antipsychotic-like activity. Variations of the test, like testing for enhancement of avoidance and escape responses, have also been used to assess other drug effects, like pro-motivational and antidepressant-like effects.

(<i>R</i>)-MDMA Psychoactive drug taken by mouth

(R)-3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine ((R)-MDMA), also known as (R)-midomafetamine or as levo-MDMA, is the (R)- or levorotatory (l-) enantiomer of 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA; midomafetamine; "ecstasy"), a racemic mixture of (R)-MDMA and (S)-MDMA. Like MDMA, (R)-MDMA is an entactogen or empathogen. It is taken by mouth.

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