Isaac Newton

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1696–1699

Newton was not the first of the age of reason. He was the last of the magicians, the last of the Babylonians and Sumerians, the last great mind which looked out on the visible and intellectual world with the same eyes as those who began to build our intellectual inheritance rather less than 10,000 years ago. Isaac Newton, a posthumous child born with no father on Christmas Day, 1642, was the last wonderchild to whom the Magi could do sincere and appropriate homage.

–John Maynard Keynes, "Newton, the Man" [154]

Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with alchemy. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations. [116] Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets. [155] Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the church. [116]

In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's. [156] The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000. [157] John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946. [116] [156] [158]

All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton" [159] and summarised in a book. [160] [161]

Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction, the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors, and the formulation of the calculus. Yet there is another, more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known, a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life, although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues. We refer to Newton's involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it was often called in seventeenth-century England, "chymistry." [159]

In June 2020, two unpublished pages of Newton's notes on Jan Baptist van Helmont's book on plague, De Peste, [162] were being auctioned online by Bonhams. Newton's analysis of this book, which he made in Cambridge while protecting himself from London's 1665–1666 infection, is the most substantial written statement he is known to have made about the plague, according to Bonhams. As far as the therapy is concerned, Newton writes that "the best is a toad suspended by the legs in a chimney for three days, which at last vomited up earth with various insects in it, on to a dish of yellow wax, and shortly after died. Combining powdered toad with the excretions and serum made into lozenges and worn about the affected area drove away the contagion and drew out the poison". [163]

Legacy

Fame

Newton's tomb monument in Westminster Abbey by John Michael Rysbrack Tumba de Isaac Newton - panoramio (cropped).jpg
Newton's tomb monument in Westminster Abbey by John Michael Rysbrack

The mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish." [164] English poet Alexander Pope wrote the famous epitaph:

Nature, and Nature's laws lay hid in night.
God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.

But this was not allowed to be inscribed in Newton's monument at Westminster. The epitaph added is as follows: [165]

H. S. E. ISAACUS NEWTON Eques Auratus, / Qui, animi vi prope divinâ, / Planetarum Motus, Figuras, / Cometarum semitas, Oceanique Aestus. Suâ Mathesi facem praeferente / Primus demonstravit: / Radiorum Lucis dissimilitudines, / Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates, / Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus erat, pervestigavit. / Naturae, Antiquitatis, S. Scripturae, / Sedulus, sagax, fidus Interpres / Dei O. M. Majestatem Philosophiâ asseruit, / Evangelij Simplicitatem Moribus expressit. / Sibi gratulentur Mortales, / Tale tantumque exstitisse / HUMANI GENERIS DECUS. / NAT. XXV DEC. A.D. MDCXLII. OBIIT. XX. MAR. MDCCXXVI,

which can be translated as follows: [165]

Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726.

In a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Albert Einstein, the members deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution. [166] In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever," with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton. [167] [168] New Scientist called Newton "the supreme genius and most enigmatic character in the history of science". [169] Newton has been called the "most influential figure in the history of Western science". [170] Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. [171]

Physicist Lev Landau ranked physicists on a logarithmic scale of productivity ranging from 0 to 5. The highest ranking, 0, was assigned to Newton. Albert Einstein was ranked 0.5. A rank of 1 was awarded to the "founding fathers" of quantum mechanics, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Paul Dirac and Erwin Schrödinger. Landau, a Nobel prize winner and discoverer of superfluidity, ranked himself as 2. [172]

The SI derived unit of force is named the newton in his honour.

Woolsthorpe Manor is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light". [173]

In 1816, a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £730 [174] in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring. [175] Guinness World Records 2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth in the world, which would value approximately £25,000 (US$35,700) in late 2001. [175] Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed.

Apple incident

Sapling of newton apple tree (cropped).jpg
Newton's tree, Botanic Gardens, Cambridge (sign).jpg
Newtons apple.jpg
Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree at (from top to bottom): Trinity College, Cambridge, the Cambridge University Botanic Garden, and the Instituto Balseiro library garden in Argentina

Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree. [176] [177] The story is believed to have passed into popular knowledge after being related by Catherine Barton, Newton's niece, to Voltaire. [178] Voltaire then wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree." [179] [180]

Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity at any single moment, [181] acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726: [182] [183] [184]

we went into the garden, & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."

John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life: [185]

In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.

A wood engraving of Newton's famous steps under the apple tree Doctor Zirkel follows Newton's famous steps under the fabled Wellcome V0011942.jpg
A wood engraving of Newton's famous steps under the apple tree

It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however, it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory. [186] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".

Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the (now) National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree [187] can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale in Kent [188] can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety. [189]

Commemorations

Newton statue on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History Isaac Newton statue.jpg
Newton statue on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History

Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent. [190] The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism. [191]

From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System. [192]

A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. A large bronze statue, Newton, after William Blake , by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated 1995 and inspired by Blake's etching, dominates the piazza of the British Library in London. A bronze statue of Newton was erected in 1858 in the centre of Grantham where he went to school, prominently standing in front of Grantham Guildhall.

The still-surviving farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light". [173]

The Enlightenment

Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded. [193]

It is held by European philosophers of the Enlightenment and by historians of the Enlightenment that Newton's publication of the Principia was a turning point in the Scientific Revolution and started the Enlightenment. It was Newton's conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology. [194] Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of natural law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.

Works

Published in his lifetime

Published posthumously

See also

Related Research Articles

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References

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian ("Old Style") calendar in Protestant and Orthodox regions, including Britain; and the Gregorian ("New Style") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates; thus, his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but it can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726, according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727. [6] [ self-published source? ]
  2. ↑ This claim was made by William Stukeley in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to Richard Mead. Charles Hutton, who in the late eighteenth century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declared that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general." [121]

Citations

  1. ↑ Kevin C. Knox, Richard Noakes (eds.), From Newton to Hawking: A History of Cambridge University's Lucasian Professors of Mathematics, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 61.
  2. 1 2 "Fellows of the Royal Society". London: Royal Society. Archived from the original on 16 March 2015.
  3. ↑ Feingold, Mordechai. Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677) Archived 29 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine , Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2009; explained further in Feingold, Mordechai (1993). "Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation". Isis. 84 (2): 310–338. Bibcode:1993Isis...84..310F. doi:10.1086/356464. ISSN   0021-1753. JSTOR   236236. S2CID   144019197.
  4. ↑ "Dictionary of Scientific Biography". Notes, No. 4. Archived from the original on 25 February 2005.
  5. ↑ Gjertsen 1986, p. [ page needed ]
  6. ↑ Thony, Christie (2015). "Calendrical confusion or just when did Newton die?". The Renaissance Mathematicus. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
  7. ↑ Alex, Berezow (4 February 2022). "Who was the smartest person in the world?". Big Think. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
  8. ↑ Whiteside, D. T. (1991). "The Prehistory of the 'Principia' from 1664 to 1686". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 45 (1): 11–61. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1991.0002. ISSN   0035-9149. JSTOR   531520. S2CID   145338571. Archived from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
  9. ↑ Gandt, F. D. (2014). Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia. Princeton University Press. pp. ix–xii. ISBN   978-1-4008-6412-6. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
  10. ↑ Bos, H. J. M. (1980). Grattan-Guinness, I. (ed.). From the Calculus to Set Theory 1630-1910: An Introductory History (1st ed.). Princeton University Press. pp. 49–50, 54. ISBN   978-0-691-07082-7.
  11. 1 2 Sastry, S.Subramanya, The Newton-Leibniz controversy over the invention of the calculus (PDF), University of Wisconsin–Madison, p. 3, doi: 10.1214/ss/1028905930 , archived (PDF) from the original on 8 January 2024, retrieved 12 October 2023
  12. ↑ More, Louis Trenchard (1934). Isaac Newton, a Biography. Dover Publications. p. 327.
  13. ↑ Cheng, K. C.; Fujii, T. (1998). "Isaac Newton and Heat Transfer". Heat Transfer Engineering. 19 (4): 9–21. doi:10.1080/01457639808939932. ISSN   0145-7632.
  14. ↑ The Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. Vol. VIII. Adam and Charles Black. 1855. p. 524.
  15. ↑ Sanford, Fernando (1921). "Some Early Theories Regarding Electrical Forces – The Electric Emanation Theory". The Scientific Monthly. 12 (6): 544–550. Bibcode:1921SciMo..12..544S. ISSN   0096-3771.
  16. ↑ Rowlands, Peter (2017). Newton - Innovation And Controversy. World Scientific Publishing. p. 109. ISBN   9781786344045.
  17. ↑ Hatch, Robert A. (1988). "Sir Isaac Newton". Archived from the original on 5 November 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
  18. ↑ Storr, Anthony (December 1985). "Isaac Newton". British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition). 291 (6511): 1779–84. doi:10.1136/bmj.291.6511.1779. JSTOR   29521701. PMC   1419183 . PMID   3936583.
  19. ↑ Keynes, Milo (20 September 2008). "Balancing Newton's Mind: His Singular Behaviour and His Madness of 1692–93". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 62 (3): 289–300. doi: 10.1098/rsnr.2007.0025 . JSTOR   20462679. PMID   19244857.
  20. ↑ Westfall 1980, p. 55.
  21. ↑ "Newton the Mathematician" Z. Bechler, ed., Contemporary Newtonian Research(Dordrecht 1982) pp. 110–111
  22. ↑ Westfall 1994, pp. 16–19.
  23. ↑ White 1997, p. 22.
  24. ↑ Westfall 1980, pp. 60–62.
  25. ↑ Westfall 1980, pp. 71, 103.
  26. ↑ Taylor, Henry Martyn (1911). "Newton, Sir Isaac"  . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 583.
  27. ↑ Hoskins, Michael, ed. (1997). Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN   978-0-521-41158-5.
  28. ↑ Newton, Isaac. "Waste Book". Cambridge University Digital Library. Archived from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
  29. 1 2 Struik, Dirk J. (1948). A Concise History of Mathematics. Dover Publications. pp. 151, 154.
  30. 1 2 McDonald, Kerry (27 March 2020). "How Isaac Newton Turned Isolation From the Great Plague Into a "Year of Wonders"". fee.org. Archived from the original on 24 September 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  31. ↑ "Newton, Isaac (NWTN661I)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  32. ↑ Westfall 1980, p. 178.
  33. ↑ Westfall 1980, p. 179.
  34. ↑ Westfall 1980, pp. 330–331.
  35. ↑ White 1997, p. 151.
  36. 1 2 3 4 Warntz, William (1989). "Newton, the Newtonians, and the Geographia Generalis Varenii". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 79 (2): 165–191. doi:10.2307/621272. JSTOR   621272 . Retrieved 9 June 2024.
  37. ↑ Keighren, Innes M. (2006). "Circulating Seditious Knowledge: The "Daring Absurdities, Studied Misrepresentations, and Abominable Falsehoods" of William Macintosh". In Jöns, Heike; Meusburger, Peter; Heffernan, Michael (eds.). Mobilities of Knowledge. Springer Open. ISBN   978-3-319-44653-0.
  38. ↑ Baker, J. N. L. (1955). "The Geography of Bernhard Varenius". Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers). 21 (21): 51–60. doi:10.2307/621272. JSTOR   621272.
  39. ↑ Schuchard, Margret (2008). "Notes On Geographia Generalis And Its Introduction To England And North America". In Schuchard, Margret (ed.). Bernhard Varenius (1622-1650). Brill. pp. 227–237. ISBN   978-90-04-16363-8 . Retrieved 9 June 2024.
  40. ↑ Mayhew, Robert J. (2011). "Geography's Genealogies". In Agnew, John A.; Livingstone, David N. (eds.). The SAGE Handbook of Geographical Knowledge. SAGE Publications Inc. ISBN   978-1-4129-1081-1.
  41. ↑ Ball 1908, p. 319.
  42. ↑ Newton, Isaac (1967). "The October 1666 tract on fluxions". In Whiteside, Derek Thomas (ed.). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton Volume 1 from 1664 to 1666. Cambridge University Press. p. 400. ISBN   978-0-521-05817-9.
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Bibliography

Further reading

Primary

  • Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, (1999)
    • Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, University of California Press (1996)
  • Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672, Cambridge University Press (1984)
    • Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition
    • Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.
  • Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press (1934)
  • Whiteside, D. T., ed. (1967–1982). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-07740-8. – 8 volumes.
  • Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H.W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols (1959–77)
  • Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H.S. Thayer (1953; online edition)
  • Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton (1850, Google Books)
  • Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse
  • Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I.B. Cohen and R.E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
  • Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A.R. Hall and M.B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson

Alchemy

  • Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  • Craig, John (1953). "XII. Isaac Newton". The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–222. ASIN   B0000CIHG7.
  • de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G. D. Knox. – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)
  • Dobbs, B. J. T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Keynes, John Maynard (1963). Essays in Biography. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN   978-0-393-00189-1. Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
  • Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and Francis. (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752)
  • Trabue, J. "Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton," The American Genealogist 79 (2004): 13–27.

Religion

  • Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism
  • Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. (1999), pp. xvii, 325.; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts
  • Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas. 58 (1): 57–80. doi:10.1353/jhi.1997.0001. JSTOR   3653988. S2CID   170545277.
  • Ramati, Ayval (2001). "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions". The British Journal for the History of Science. 34 (4): 417–38. doi:10.1017/S0007087401004484. JSTOR   4028372. S2CID   143045863.
  • Snobelen, Stephen D. (2001). "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia". Osiris. 16: 169–208. Bibcode:2001Osir...16..169S. doi:10.1086/649344. JSTOR   301985. S2CID   170364912.
  • Snobelen, Stephen D. (December 1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite". The British Journal for the History of Science. 32 (4): 381–419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. JSTOR   4027945. S2CID   145208136.

Science

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Writings by Newton

Sir
Isaac Newton
FRS
Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton, 1689 (brightened).jpg
Portrait of Newton at 46, 1689
Born(1643-01-04)4 January 1643 [ O.S. 25 December 1642] [lower-alpha 1]
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England
Died31 March 1727(1727-03-31) (aged 84) [ O.S. 20 March 1726] [lower-alpha 1]
Kensington, Middlesex, Great Britain
Resting place Westminster Abbey
Education Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1665; M.A., 1668) [1]
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for the University of Cambridge
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1689–1690		 Warden of the Mint
Preceded by Thomas Neale
Succeeded by John Conduitt
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