He initially fought against the Roman Empire during the First Jewish–Roman War as general of the Jewish forces in Galilee,until surrendering in AD67 to the Roman army led by military commander Vespasian after the six-week siege of Yodfat. Josephus claimed the Jewish messianicprophecies that initiated the First Jewish–Roman War made reference to Vespasian becoming Roman emperor. In response,Vespasian decided to keep him as a slave and presumably interpreter. After Vespasian became emperor in AD69,he granted Josephus his freedom,at which time Josephus assumed the Emperor's family name of Flavius.[9]
Flavius Josephus fully defected to the Roman side and was granted Roman citizenship. He became an advisor and close associate of Vespasian's son Titus,serving as his translator during Titus's protracted siege of Jerusalem in AD 70,resulted in the near-total razing of the city and the destruction of the Second Temple.
Josephus recorded the Great Jewish Revolt (AD 66–70),including the siege of Masada. His most important works were The Jewish War (c.75) and Antiquities of the Jews (c.94).[10]The Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation. Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Greek and Roman audience. These works provide valuable insight into first-century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity.[10] Josephus's works are the chief source next to the Bible for the history and antiquity of ancient Israel,and provide a significant and independent extra-biblical account of such figures as Pontius Pilate,Herod the Great,John the Baptist,James,brother of Jesus,and Jesus of Nazareth.[11]
Biography
Galilee,site of Josephus's governorship,before the First Jewish–Roman War
Josephus was born into one of Jerusalem's elite families.[12] He was the second-born son of Matthias,a Jewish priest. His older full-blooded brother was also,like his father,called Matthias.[13] Their mother was an aristocratic woman who was descended from the royal and formerly ruling Hasmonean dynasty.[14] Josephus's paternal grandparents were a man also named Josephus and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman—distant relatives of each other.[15] Josephus's family was wealthy. He descended through his father from the priestly order of the Jehoiarib,which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem.[16] Josephus was a descendant of the High Priest of IsraelJonathan Apphus.[16] He was raised in Jerusalem and educated alongside his brother.[17]
In his mid twenties,he traveled to negotiate with Emperor Nero for the release of some Jewish priests.[18] Upon his return to Jerusalem,at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War,Josephus was appointed the military governor of Galilee.[19] His arrival in Galilee,however,was fraught with internal division:the inhabitants of Sepphoris and Tiberias opted to maintain peace with the Romans;the people of Sepphoris enlisted the help of the Roman army to protect their city,[20] while the people of Tiberias appealed to King Agrippa's forces to protect them from the insurgents.[21] Josephus trained 65,000 troops in the region.[11]
Josephus also contended with John of Gischala who had also set his sight over the control of Galilee. Like Josephus,John had amassed to himself a large band of supporters from Gischala (Gush Halab) and Gabara,[lower-alpha 2] including the support of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem.[25] Meanwhile,Josephus fortified several towns and villages in Lower Galilee,among which were Tiberias,Bersabe,Selamin,Japha,and Tarichaea,in anticipation of a Roman onslaught.[26] In Upper Galilee,he fortified the towns of Jamnith,Seph,Mero,and Achabare,among other places.[26] Josephus,with the Galileans under his command,managed to bring both Sepphoris and Tiberias into subjection,[20] but was eventually forced to relinquish his hold on Sepphoris by the arrival of Roman forces under Placidus the tribune and later by Vespasian himself. Josephus first engaged the Roman army at a village called Garis,where he launched an attack against Sepphoris a second time,before being repulsed.[27] At length,he resisted the Roman army in its siege of Yodfat (Jotapata) until it fell to the Roman army in the lunar month of Tammuz,in the thirteenth year of Nero's reign.
After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat fell under siege,the Romans invaded,killing thousands;the survivors committed suicide. According to Josephus,he was trapped in a cave with 40 of his companions in July 67 AD. The Romans (commanded by Flavius Vespasian and his son Titus,both subsequently Roman emperors) asked the group to surrender,but they refused. According to Josephus's account,he suggested a method of collective suicide;[28] they drew lots and killed each other,one by one,and Josephus happened to be one of two men that were left who surrendered to the Roman forces and became prisoners.[lower-alpha 3] In 69 AD,Josephus was released.[30] According to his account,he acted as a negotiator with the defenders during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD,during which time his parents were held as hostages by Simon bar Giora.[31]
While being confined at Yodfat (Jotapata),Josephus claimed to have experienced a divine revelation that later led to his speech predicting Vespasian would become emperor. After the prediction came true,he was released by Vespasian,who considered his gift of prophecy to be divine. Josephus wrote that his revelation had taught him three things:that God,the creator of the Jewish people,had decided to "punish" them;that "fortune" had been given to the Romans;and that God had chosen him "to announce the things that are to come".[32][33][34] To many Jews,such claims were simply self-serving.[35]
In 71 AD,he went to Rome as part of the entourage of Titus. There,he became a Roman citizen and client of the ruling Flavian dynasty. In addition to Roman citizenship,he was granted accommodation in the conquered Judaea and a pension. While in Rome and under Flavian patronage,Josephus wrote all of his known works. Although he only ever calls himself "Josephus" in his writings,later historians refer to him as "Flavius Josephus",confirming that he adopted the nomenFlavius from his patrons,as was the custom amongst freedmen.[4][5]
Vespasian arranged for Josephus to marry a captured Jewish woman,whom he later divorced. Around the year 71,Josephus married an Alexandrian Jewish woman as his third wife. They had three sons,of whom only Flavius Hyrcanus survived childhood. Josephus later divorced his third wife. Around 75,he married his fourth wife,a Greek Jewish woman from Crete,who was a member of a distinguished family. They had two sons,Flavius Justus and Flavius Simonides Agrippa.
Josephus's life story remains ambiguous. He was described by Harris in 1985 as a law-observant Jew who believed in the compatibility of Judaism and Graeco-Roman thought,commonly referred to as Hellenistic Judaism.[10]Josippon,the Hebrew version of Josephus,contains changes.[36] His critics were never satisfied as to why he failed to commit suicide in Galilee,and after his capture,accepted the patronage of Romans.
Scholarship and impact on history
The works of Josephus provide crucial information about the First Jewish–Roman War and also represent important literary source material for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and late Temple Judaism.
Josephan scholarship in the 19th and early 20th centuries took an interest in Josephus's relationship to the sect of the Pharisees.[citation needed] Some[who?] portrayed him as a member of the sect and as a traitor to the Jewish nation—a view which became known as the classical concept of Josephus.[37] In the mid-20th century,a new generation of scholars[who?] challenged this view and formulated the modern concept of Josephus. They consider him a Pharisee but describe him in part as patriot and a historian of some standing. In his 1991 book,Steve Mason argued that Josephus was not a Pharisee but an orthodox Aristocrat-Priest who became associated with the philosophical school of the Pharisees as a matter of deference,and not by willing association.[38]
Impact on history and archaeology
The works of Josephus include useful material for historians about individuals,groups,customs,and geographical places. However,modern historians have been cautious of taking his writings at face value. For example,Carl Ritter,in his highly influential Erdkunde in the 1840s,wrote in a review of authorities on the ancient geography of the region:
Outside of the Scriptures,Josephus holds the first and the only place among the native authors of Judaea;for Philo of Alexandria,the later Talmud,and other authorities,are of little service in understanding the geography of the country. Josephus is,however,to be used with great care. As a Jewish scholar,as an officer of Galilee,as a military man,and a person of great experience in everything belonging to his own nation,he attained to that remarkable familiarity with his country in every part,which his antiquarian researches so abundantly evince. But he was controlled by political motives:his great purpose was to bring his people,the despised Jewish race,into honour with the Greeks and Romans;and this purpose underlay every sentence,and filled his history with distortions and exaggerations.[39]
A careful reading of Josephus's writings and years of excavation allowed Ehud Netzer,an archaeologist from Hebrew University,to discover what he considered to be the location of Herod's Tomb,after searching for 35 years.[45] It was above aqueducts and pools,at a flattened desert site,halfway up the hill to the Herodium,12km south of Jerusalem—as described in Josephus's writings.[46] In October 2013,archaeologists Joseph Patrich and Benjamin Arubas challenged the identification of the tomb as that of Herod.[47] According to Patrich and Arubas,the tomb is too modest to be Herod's and has several unlikely features.[47] Roi Porat,who replaced Netzer as excavation leader after the latter's death,stood by the identification.[47]
Scholars debate about Josephus's intended audience. For example,Antiquities of the Jews could be written for Jews—"a few scholars from Laqueur onward have suggested that Josephus must have written primarily for fellow Jews (if also secondarily for Gentiles). The most common motive suggested is repentance:in later life he felt so bad about the traitorous War that he needed to demonstrate …his loyalty to Jewish history,law and culture."[50] However,Josephus's "countless incidental remarks explaining basic Judean language,customs and laws …assume a Gentile audience. He does not expect his first hearers to know anything about the laws or Judean origins."[51] The issue of who would read this multi-volume work is unresolved. Other possible motives for writing Antiquities could be to dispel the misrepresentation of Jewish origins[52] or as an apologetic to Greek cities of the Diaspora in order to protect Jews and to Roman authorities to garner their support for the Jews facing persecution.[53]
Literary influence and translations
Josephus was a very popular writer with Christians in the 4th century and beyond as an independent source to the events before,during,and after the life of Jesus of Nazareth. Josephus was always accessible in the Greek-reading Eastern Mediterranean. His works were translated into Latin,but often in abbreviated form such as Pseudo-Hegesippus's 4th century Latin version of The Jewish War (Bellum Judaicum). Christian interest in The Jewish War was largely out of interest in the downfall of the Jews and the Second Temple,which was widely considered divine punishment for the crime of killing Jesus. Improvements in printing technology (the Gutenberg Press) led to his works receiving a number of new translations into the vernacular languages of Europe,generally based on the Latin versions. Only in 1544 did a version of the standard Greek text become available in French,edited by the Dutch humanistArnoldus Arlenius. The first English translation,by Thomas Lodge,appeared in 1602,with subsequent editions appearing throughout the 17th century. The 1544 Greek edition formed the basis of the 1732 English translation by William Whiston,which achieved enormous popularity in the English-speaking world. It was often the book—after the Bible—that Christians most frequently owned. Whiston claimed that certain works by Josephus had a similar style to the Epistles of St. Paul.[54][55] Later editions of the Greek text include that of Benedikt Niese,who made a detailed examination of all the available manuscripts,mainly from France and Spain. Henry St. John Thackeray and successors such as Ralph Marcus used Niese's version for the Loeb Classical Library edition widely used today.
On the Jewish side,Josephus was far more obscure,as he was perceived as a traitor. Rabbinical writings for a millennium after his death (e.g. the Mishnah) almost never call out Josephus by name,although they sometimes tell parallel tales of the same events that Josephus narrated. An Italian Jew writing in the 10th century indirectly brought Josephus back to prominence among Jews:he authored the Yosippon,which paraphrases Pseudo-Hegesippus's Latin version of The Jewish War,a Latin version of Antiquities,as well as other works. The epitomist also adds in his own snippets of history at times. Jews generally distrusted Christian translations of Josephus until the Haskalah ("Jewish Enlightenment") in the 19th century,when sufficiently "neutral" vernacular language translations were made. Kalman Schulman finally created a Hebrew translation of the Greek text of Josephus in 1863,although many rabbis continued to prefer the Yosippon version. By the 20th century,Jewish attitudes toward Josephus had softened,as he gave the Jews a respectable place in classical history. Various parts of his work were reinterpreted as more inspiring and favorable to the Jews than the Renaissance translations by Christians had been. Notably,the last stand at Masada (described in The Jewish War),which past generations had deemed insane and fanatical,received a more positive reinterpretation as an inspiring call to action in this period.[55][56]
The standard editio maior of the various Greek manuscripts is that of Benedictus Niese,published 1885–95. The text of Antiquities is damaged in some places. In the Life,Niese follows mainly manuscript P,but refers also to AMW and R. Henry St. John Thackeray for the Loeb Classical Library has a Greek text also mainly dependent on P. AndréPelletier edited a new Greek text for his translation of Life. The ongoing Münsteraner Josephus-Ausgabe of Münster University will provide a new critical apparatus. Late Old Slavonic translations of the Greek also exist,but these contain a large number of Christian interpolations.[57]
Evaluation as a military commander
Author Joseph Raymond calls Josephus "the Jewish Benedict Arnold" for betraying his own troops at Jotapata,[58] while historian Mary Smallwood,in the introduction to the translation of The Jewish War by G. A. Williamson,writes:
[Josephus] was conceited, not only about his own learning, but also about the opinions held of him as commander both by the Galileans and by the Romans; he was guilty of shocking duplicity at Jotapata, saving himself by sacrifice of his companions; he was too naive to see how he stood condemned out of his own mouth for his conduct, and yet no words were too harsh when he was blackening his opponents; and after landing, however involuntarily, in the Roman camp, he turned his captivity to his own advantage, and benefited for the rest of his days from his change of side.[59]
In the Preface to Jewish Wars, Josephus criticizes historians who misrepresent the events of the Jewish–Roman War, writing that "they have a mind to demonstrate the greatness of the Romans, while they still diminish and lessen the actions of the Jews."[60] Josephus states that his intention is to correct this method but that he "will not go to the other extreme... [and] will prosecute the actions of both parties with accuracy."[61] Josephus confesses he will be unable to contain his sadness in transcribing these events; to illustrate this will have little effect on his historiography, Josephus suggests, "But if any one be inflexible in his censures of me, let him attribute the facts themselves to the historical part, and the lamentations to the writer himself only."[61]
His preface to Antiquities offers his opinion early on, saying, "Upon the whole, a man that will peruse this history, may principally learn from it, that all events succeed well, even to an incredible degree, and the reward of felicity is proposed by God."[62] After inserting this attitude, Josephus contradicts Berossus: "I shall accurately describe what is contained in our records, in the order of time that belongs to them... without adding any thing to what is therein contained, or taking away any thing therefrom."[62] He notes the difference between history and philosophy by saying, "[T]hose that read my book may wonder how it comes to pass, that my discourse, which promises an account of laws and historical facts, contains so much of philosophy."[63]
In both works, Josephus emphasizes that accuracy is crucial to historiography. Louis H. Feldman notes that in Wars, Josephus commits himself to critical historiography, but in Antiquities, Josephus shifts to rhetorical historiography, which was the norm of his time.[64] Feldman notes further that it is significant that Josephus called his later work "Antiquities" (literally, archaeology) rather than history; in the Hellenistic period, archaeology meant either "history from the origins or archaic history."[65] Thus, his title implies a Jewish peoples' history from their origins until the time he wrote. This distinction is significant to Feldman, because "in ancient times, historians were expected to write in chronological order," while "antiquarians wrote in a systematic order, proceeding topically and logically" and included all relevant material for their subject.[65] Antiquarians moved beyond political history to include institutions and religious and private life.[66] Josephus does offer this wider perspective in Antiquities.
Works
The works of Josephus translated by Thomas Lodge (1602)
The works of Josephus are major sources of our understanding of Jewish life and history during the first century.[67]
(c.75) War of the Jews, The Jewish War, Jewish Wars, or History of the Jewish War (commonly abbreviated JW, BJ or War)
(c.94) Antiquities of the Jews, Jewish Antiquities, or Antiquities of the Jews/Jewish Archeology (frequently abbreviated AJ, AotJ or Ant. or Antiq.)
(c.97) Flavius Josephus Against Apion, Against Apion, Contra Apionem, or Against the Greeks, on the antiquity of the Jewish people (usually abbreviated CA)
(c.99) Life of Josephus, or Autobiography of Josephus (abbreviated Life or Vita)
His first work in Rome was an account of the Jewish War, addressed to certain "upper barbarians"—usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia—in his "paternal tongue" (War I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic language. In AD 78 he finished a seven-volume account in Greek known as the Jewish War (LatinBellum Judaicum or De Bello Judaico). It starts with the period of the Maccabees and concludes with accounts of the fall of Jerusalem, and the subsequent fall of the fortresses of Herodion, Macharont and Masada and the Roman victory celebrations in Rome, the mopping-up operations, Roman military operations elsewhere in the empire and the uprising in Cyrene. Together with the account in his Life of some of the same events, it also provides the reader with an overview of Josephus's own part in the events since his return to Jerusalem from a brief visit to Rome in the early 60s (Life 13–17).[68]
In the wake of the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Josephus would have witnessed the marches of Titus's triumphant legions leading their Jewish captives, and carrying treasures from the despoiled Temple in Jerusalem. It was against this background that Josephus wrote his War. He blames the Jewish War on what he calls "unrepresentative and over-zealous fanatics" among the Jews, who led the masses away from their traditional aristocratic leaders (like himself), with disastrous results. For example, Josephus writes that "Simon [bar Giora] was a greater terror to the people than the Romans themselves."[69] Josephus also blames some of the Roman governors of Judea, representing them as corrupt and incompetent administrators.
The next work by Josephus is his 21-volume Antiquities of the Jews, completed during the last year of the reign of the Emperor Flavius Domitian, around 93 or 94 AD. In expounding Jewish history, law and custom, he is entering into many philosophical debates current in Rome at that time. Again he offers an apologia for the antiquity and universal significance of the Jewish people. Josephus claims to be writing this history because he "saw that others perverted the truth of those actions in their writings",[70] those writings being the history of the Jews. In terms of some of his sources for the project, Josephus says that he drew from and "interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures"[71] and that he was an eyewitness to the wars between the Jews and the Romans,[70] which were earlier recounted in Jewish Wars.
He outlines Jewish history beginning with the creation, as passed down through Jewish historical tradition. Abraham taught science to the Egyptians, who, in turn, taught the Greeks.[72]Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which, like that of Rome, resisted monarchy. The great figures of the Tanakh are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders. He includes an autobiographical appendix defending his conduct at the end of the war when he cooperated with the Roman forces.
Louis H. Feldman outlines the difference between calling this work Antiquities of the Jews instead of History of the Jews. Although Josephus says that he describes the events contained in Antiquities "in the order of time that belongs to them,"[62] Feldman argues that Josephus "aimed to organize [his] material systematically rather than chronologically" and had a scope that "ranged far beyond mere political history to political institutions, religious and private life."[66]
An autobiographical text written by Josephus in approximately 94–99 CE – possibly as an appendix to his Antiquities of the Jews (cf. Life 430) – where the author for the most part re-visits the events of the War and his tenure in Galilee as governor and commander, apparently in response to allegations made against him by Justus of Tiberias (cf. Life 336).
Josephus's Against Apion is a two-volume defence of Judaism as classicalreligion and philosophy, stressing its antiquity, as opposed to what Josephus claimed was the relatively more recent tradition of the Greeks. Some anti-Judaic allegations ascribed by Josephus to the Greek writer Apion and myths accredited to Manetho are also addressed.
↑ Some modern authors give his birth name, including patronymic, which was "Yosef ben Mattityahu", “Yoseph bar Mattityahu" or "Yosef ben Matityahu",[4][5][6][7] literally meaning "Joseph son of Matthias". That is what he calls himself at the start of The Jewish War (Ἰώσηπος Ματθίου παῖς, Iósipos Matthíou país). "Flavius" was not part of his birth name, and was only adopted later.[4]
↑ A large village in Galilee during the 1st century AD, located to the north of Nazareth. In antiquity, the town was called "Garaba", but in Josephus's historical works of antiquity, the town is mentioned by its Greek corruption, "Gabara".[22][23][24]
↑ This method as a mathematical problem is referred to as the Josephus problem, or Roman roulette.[29]
1 2 Collins, John J.; Harlow, Daniel C. (2012). "Josephus". Early Judaism: A Comprehensive Overview. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN978-1-4674-3739-4.
↑ Ben-Ari, Nitsa (2003). "The double conversion of Ben-Hur: a case of manipulative translation"(PDF). Target. 14 (2): 263–301. doi:10.1075/target.14.2.05ben. Retrieved 28 November 2011. The converts themselves were banned from society as outcasts and so was their historiographic work or, in the more popular historical novels, their literary counterparts. Josephus Flavius, formerly Yosef Ben Matityahu (34–95), had been shunned, then banned as a traitor.
1 2 Josephus, Flavius; Whiston, William; Maier, Paul L. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications. p.7-8. ISBN9780825429484.
↑ Goodman 2007, p.8: "Josephus was born into the ruling elite of Jerusalem"
↑ Josephus 1737, 3.6.4: After describing the curtain that hung in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, Josephus adds: "Whence that custom of ours is derived, of having a fine linen veil, after the temple has been built, to be drawn over the entrances."
↑ Flavius Josephus, The Works of Flavius Josephus. Translated by William Whiston, A. M. Auburn and Buffalo. John E. Beardsley: 1895, s.v. The Jewish War 1.24.2 (end) (1.473).
↑ Whealey, Alice (2003). Josephus on Jesus: The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times. Peter Lang Publishing. ISBN978-0-8204-5241-8. In the sixteenth century the authenticity of the text [Testimonium Flavianum] was publicly challenged, launching a controversy that has still not been resolved today
↑ Millar 2011, Chapter 14: "Hagar, Ishmael, Josephus, and the origins of Islam": "Josephus is thus alluding to a proposition, not yet established in his narrative, that Ishmael was the founder (ktistēs) of the race (ethnos) of the 'Arabes' and offers this as his explanation of a custom currently observed by them."
↑ Gilad, Elon (17 June 2019). "The Myth of Masada: How Reliable Was Josephus, Anyway?". Haaretz. Retrieved 28 September 2023. The only source we have for the story of Masada, and numerous other reported events from the time, is the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, author of the book 'The Jewish War'.
1 2 Josephus, Flavius (2017) [c. 75]. The Jewish War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.xxix–xxxv.. Information is from the Introduction, by Martin Goodman.
Aune, David Edward (1991) [first published 1983]. Prophecy In Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN0-8028-0635-X.
Bowman, Steven (1987). "Josephus in Byzantium". In Feldman, Louis H.; Hata, Gōhei (eds.). Josephus, Judaism and Christianity. Wayne State University Press. ISBN90-04-08554-8.
Mason, Steve, ed. (1998). "Should Any Wish to Enquire Further (Ant. 1.25): The Aim and Audience of Josephus's Judean Antiquities/Life". Understanding Josephus: Seven Perspectives. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pp.64–103. ISBN1-85075-878-6.
Mason, Steve, ed. (2000). Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary (10 vols. in 12ed.). Leiden: Brill.[ISBNmissing]
Rappaport, Uriel (2006). יוחנן מגוש חלב: מהרי הגליל אל חומות ירושלים (Yoḥanan mi-Gush ḥalav: me-hare ha-Galil el ḥomot Yerushalayim)[John of Gischala, from the mountains of Galilee to the walls of Jerusalem]. (see https://www.academia.edu/2383453 for unofficial translation )
Raymond, Joseph (2010). Herodian Messiah: Case For Jesus As Grandson of Herod. Tower Grover Publishing. ISBN978-0-615-35508-5.
Safrai, Ze'ev (1985). פרקי גליל בתקופת המשנה והתלמוד, מעלות[The Galilee in the time of the Mishna and Talmud] (in Hebrew) (2nded.). Jerusalem.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Bilde, Per. Flavius Josephus between Jerusalem and Rome: his life, his works and their importance. Sheffield: JSOT, 1988.
Chapman, Honora and Zuleika Rodgers: A Companion to Josephus, edited by (Oxford, 2016).
Cohen, Shaye J. D.: Josephus in Galilee and Rome: his vita and development as a historian. (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition; 8). Leiden: Brill, 1979.
Feldman, Louis H. and Gohei Hata: Josephus, the Bible, and History, edited by (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1988).
Hadas-lebel, Mireille: Flavius Josephus Eyewitness to Rome's first-century conquest of Judea, Macmillan 1993, Simon and Schuster 2001
den Hollander, William: Josephus, the Emperors, and the City of Rome: From Hostage to Historian (Boston: Brill, 2014).
Hillar, Marian (2005). "Flavius Josephus and His Testimony Concerning the Historical Jesus". Essays in the Philosophy of Humanism. 13. Washington, DC: American Humanist Association: 66–103.
Kókai-Nagy, Viktor; Vér, Ádám (2023). Peace and war in Josephus. Berlin; Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN9783111146034.
Mason, Steve: Flavius Josephus on the Pharisees: a composition-critical study. Leiden: Brill, 1991.
Mason, Steve: Josephus and the New Testament: Second Edition, Hendrickson Publishers, 2003.
Rajak, Tessa: Josephus: the Historian and His Society. 2nd ed. London: 2002. (Oxford D.Phil. thesis, 2 vols. 1974.)
Raphael, Frederic: A Jew Among Romans: The Life and Legacy of Flavius Josephus (New York: Pantheon Books, 2013).
Rodgers, Zuleika: Making History: Josephus and Historical Method (Boston: Brill, 2007).
St. John Thackeray, H.: Josephus: The Man and the Historian, by (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1967).
The Works of Josephus, Complete and Unabridged New Updated Edition. Translated by Whiston, William; Peabody, A. M. (Hardcovered.). M.A. Hendrickson Publishers, Inc. 1987. ISBN0-913573-86-8. (Josephus, Flavius (1987). The Works of Josephus, Complete and Unabridged New Updated Edition (Paperbacked.). Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN1-56563-167-6.)
PACEArchived 16 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Josephus: text and resources in the Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement at York University, edited by Steve Mason.
The first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus provides external information on some people and events found in the New Testament. The extant manuscripts of Josephus' book Antiquities of the Jews, written around AD 93–94, contain two references to Jesus of Nazareth and one reference to John the Baptist.
Herod I or Herod the Great was a Roman Jewish client king of the Herodian Kingdom of Judea. He is known for his colossal building projects throughout Judea. Among these works are the rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem and the expansion of its base—the Western Wall being part of it. Vital details of his life are recorded in the works of the 1st century CE Roman–Jewish historian Josephus.
Herod Agrippa II, officially named Marcus Julius Agrippa and sometimes shortened to Agrippa, was the last ruler from the Herodian dynasty, reigning over territories outside of Judea as a Roman client. Agrippa II fled Jerusalem in 66, fearing the Jewish uprising and supported the Roman side in the First Jewish–Roman War.
Berenice of Cilicia, also known as Julia Berenice and sometimes spelled Bernice, was a Jewish client queen of the Roman Empire during the second half of the 1st century. Berenice was a member of the Herodian Dynasty that ruled the Roman province of Judaea between 39 BC and 92 AD. She was the daughter of King Herod Agrippa I and Cypros and a sister of King Herod Agrippa II.
The Hasmonean dynasty was a ruling dynasty of Judea and surrounding regions during the Hellenistic times of the Second Temple period, from c. 140 BCE to 37 BCE. Between c. 140 and c. 116 BCE the dynasty ruled Judea semi-autonomously in the Seleucid Empire, and from roughly 110 BCE, with the empire disintegrating, Judea gained further autonomy and expanded into the neighboring regions of Perea, Samaria, Idumea, Galilee, and Iturea. The Hasmonean rulers took the Greek title basileus ("king") as the kingdom became a regional power for several decades. Forces of the Roman Republic intervened in the Hasmonean Civil War in 63 BCE and made it into a client state, marking the decline of Hasmonean dynasty; Herod the Great displaced the last reigning Hasmonean client-ruler in 37 BCE.
Herod Antipas was a 1st-century ruler of Galilee and Perea. He bore the title of tetrarch and is referred to as both "Herod the Tetrarch" and "King Herod" in the New Testament. He was a son of Herod the Great and a grandson of Antipater the Idumaean. He is widely known today for accounts in the New Testament of his role in events that led to the executions of John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth. His father, Herod the Great, was described in the account as ordering the Massacre of the Innocents, marking the earliest Biblical account of the concerns of the government in Jerusalem regarding Jesus' existence.
The First Jewish–Roman War, sometimes called the Great Jewish Revolt, or The Jewish War, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews against the Roman Empire fought in the province of Judaea, resulting in the destruction of Jewish towns, the displacement of its people and the appropriation of land for Roman military use, as well as the destruction of the Jewish Temple and polity.
Antipater I the Idumaean was the founder of the Herodian Dynasty and father of Herod the Great. According to Josephus, he was the son of Antipas and had formerly held that name.
The Zealots were a political movement in 1st-century Second Temple Judaism which sought to incite the people of Judaea Province to rebel against the Roman Empire and expel it from the Holy Land by force of arms, most notably during the First Jewish–Roman War (66–70). Zealotry was the term used by Josephus for a "fourth sect" or "fourth Jewish philosophy" during this period.
Antiquities of the Jews is a 20-volume historiographical work, written in Greek, by historian Josephus in the 13th year of the reign of Roman emperor Domitian, which was 94 CE. The book contains an account of the history of the Jewish people for Josephus's gentile patrons. In the first ten volumes, Josephus follows the events of the Hebrew Bible beginning with the creation of Adam and Eve.
The Jewish War is a work of Jewish history written by Josephus, a first-century Roman-Jewish historian. It has been described by the historian Steve Mason as "perhaps the most influential non-biblical text of Western history".
Gamla, also Gamala, was an ancient Jewish town on the Golan Heights. Believed to have been founded as a Seleucid fort during the Syrian Wars, it transitioned into a predominantly Jewish settlement that came under Hasmonean rule in 81 BCE. The town's name reflects its location on a high, elongated ridge with steep slopes resembling a camel's hump.
The siege of Jerusalem of 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish–Roman War, in which the Roman army led by future emperor Titus besieged Jerusalem, the center of Jewish rebel resistance in the Roman province of Judaea. Following a five-month siege, the Romans destroyed the city, including the Second Jewish Temple.
Judaea was a Roman province from 6 to 132 AD, which incorporated the Levantine regions of Idumea, Philistia, Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, extending over parts of the former regions of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Judea. The name Judaea was derived from the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah, that was centered predominantly in Judea.
Matthew 3:5 is the fifth verse of the third chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament. The verse occurs in the section introducing John the Baptist with this verse describing his popularity in the region.
Eleazar ben Simon was a Zealot leader during the First Jewish-Roman War who fought against the armies of Cestius Gallus, Vespasian, and Titus Flavius. From the onset of the war in 66 CE until the destruction of the temple in 70 CE, he fought vehemently against the Roman garrisons in Judea and against his fellow Jewish political opponents in order to establish an independent Jewish state at Jerusalem. Although the Jewish defeat at Jerusalem cannot be entirely attributed to Eleazar ben Simon, his inability to establish unity with John of Gischala and Simon bar Giora resulted in a bitter civil war that weakened the Jewish resistance against Rome. Eleazar ben Simon and his Zealots' radical anti-Roman policies and eradication of the moderate temple aristocracy from Jerusalem in 67 CE also prevented any peaceful agreement with Rome to avoid the death and destruction which ensued in 70 CE.
Justus of Tiberias was a 1st century Jewish author and historiographer. All that we know of his life comes from the Vita which Flavius Josephus apparently wrote in response to the assertions made by Justus in his History of the Jewish War, published around 93/94 or shortly after 100. Josephus is moreover the only writer to mention this document, but without ever citing the slightest extract. This History published by Justus seems to have disappeared shortly after the publication of the Autobiography of Flavius Josephus, because it is unknown to pagan authors and the Christian authors who mention it only quote what Josephus said.
Alexandreion (Greek), or Alexandrium (Latin), called Sartaba in the Mishna and Talmud and Qarn Sartaba in Arabic, was an ancient hilltop fortress constructed by the Hasmoneans between Scythopolis and Jerusalem on a pointy barren hill towering over the Jordan Valley from the west. It was likely named after Hasmonean king Alexander Jannæus.
The Slavonic Josephus is an Old East Slavic translation of Flavius Josephus' History of the Jewish War which contains numerous interpolations and omissions that set it apart from all other known versions of Josephus' History. The authenticity of the interpolations was a major subject of controversy in the 20th century, but the latest scholarship has rejected them.
The Royal Stoa was an ancient basilica constructed by Herod the Great during his renovation of the Temple Mount at the end of the first century BCE. Probably Herod's most magnificent secular construction, the three-aisled structure was described by Josephus as deserving "to be mentioned better than any other under the sun." The Royal Stoa overlooked Jerusalem's residential and commercial quarters, and at its southwestern corner was the place from which a ram's horn was blown to announce the start of holy days.
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