List of American slave traders

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When the Union Army entered Savannah, Georgia during the American Civil War, they occupied what is now called the John Montmollin Building; it had a large sign that read "A. Bryan's Negro Mart" and was described as having "handcuffs, whips, and staples for tying, etc. Bills of sale of slaves by hundreds, and letters, all giving faithful description of the hellish business." The building became one of two schools for children of freedmen that were opened January 10, 1865. The schools had 500 students, and were operated by the Savannah Educational Association, which was "supported entirely by the freedmen, [and] collected and expended $900 for educational purposes in its first year of operation." Montmollin Building.jpg
When the Union Army entered Savannah, Georgia during the American Civil War, they occupied what is now called the John Montmollin Building; it had a large sign that read "A. Bryan's Negro Mart" and was described as having "handcuffs, whips, and staples for tying, etc. Bills of sale of slaves by hundreds, and letters, all giving faithful description of the hellish business." The building became one of two schools for children of freedmen that were opened January 10, 1865. The schools had 500 students, and were operated by the Savannah Educational Association, which was "supported entirely by the freedmen, [and] collected and expended $900 for educational purposes in its first year of operation."

This is a list of American slave traders, people whose occupation or business was the slave trade in the United States, i.e. the buying and selling of human chattel as commodities, primarily African-American people in the Southern United States, from the declaration of independence in 1776 until the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865. People who dealt in enslaved indigenous persons, such as was the case with slavery in California, would also be included. This list represents a fraction of the "many hundreds of participants in a cruel and omnipresent" American market. [3]

Contents

The Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves was passed in 1808 under the so-called Star-Spangled Banner flag, when there were 15 states in the Union. The last slave auction in the rebel states was held in 1865. [4] In the intervening years, the politics surrounding the addition of 20 new states to the Union had been almost overwhelmingly dominated by whether or not those states would have legal slavery. [5] Slavery was widespread, so slave trading was widespread, and "When a planter died, failed in business, divided his estate, needed ready money to satisfy a mortgage or pay a gambling debt, or desired to get rid of an unruly Negro, traders struck a profitable bargain." [6] A slave trader might have described himself as a broker, auctioneer, general agent, or commission merchant, [7] and often sold real estate, personal property, and livestock in addition to enslaved people. [8] Many large trading firms also had field agents, whose job it was to go to more remote towns and rural areas, buying up enslaved people for resale elsewhere. [4] Countless enslaved people were also sold at courthouse auctions by county sheriffs and U.S. marshals to satisfy court judgments and settle estates; individuals involved in those sales are not the primary focus of this list.

Note: Research by Michael Tadman has found that "'core' sources provide only a basic skeleton of a much more substantial trade" in enslaved people throughout the South, with particular deficits in records of rural slave trading, already wealthy people who speculated to grow their wealth further, and in all private sales that occurred outside auction houses and negro marts. [9]

"Slave Trader, Sold to Tennessee" depicting a coffle from Virginia in 1850 (Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum) Slave Trader, Sold to Tennessee (cropped).jpg
"Slave Trader, Sold to Tennessee" depicting a coffle from Virginia in 1850 (Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum)
Poindexter & Little, like many interstate slave-trading firms, had a buy-side in the upper south and a sell-side in the lower south (Southern Confederacy, January 12, 1862, page 1, via Digital Library of Georgia) Poindexter & Little Slave Depot no 48 Barrone New Orleans.jpg
Poindexter & Little, like many interstate slave-trading firms, had a buy-side in the upper south and a sell-side in the lower south (Southern Confederacy, January 12, 1862, page 1, via Digital Library of Georgia)
Slave trading was legal in the 15 so-called slave states (listed in order of admission to the Union): Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, South Carolina, Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas (Reynolds's 1856 Political Map of the United States, depicting Missouri Compromise line, et al., Library of Congress Geography and Map Division) Reynolds's Political Map of the United States 1856.jpg
Slave trading was legal in the 15 so-called slave states (listed in order of admission to the Union): Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, South Carolina, Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas (Reynolds's 1856 Political Map of the United States, depicting Missouri Compromise line, et al., Library of Congress Geography and Map Division)
Lyrics to a "singularly wild and plaintive air" about the interstate slave trade, recorded in "Letter XI. The Interior of South Carolina. A Corn-Shucking. Barnwell District, South Carolina, March 29, 1843" in William Cullen Bryant's Letters from a Traveler, reprinted in The Ottawa Free Trader, Ottawa, Illinois, November 8, 1856 A Corn Shucking.jpg
Lyrics to a "singularly wild and plaintive air" about the interstate slave trade, recorded in "Letter XI. The Interior of South Carolina. A Corn-Shucking. Barnwell District, South Carolina, March 29, 1843" in William Cullen Bryant's Letters from a Traveler, reprinted in The Ottawa Free Trader, Ottawa, Illinois, November 8, 1856

List is organized by surname of trader, or name of firm, where principals have not been further identified.

Note: Charleston and Charles Town, Virginia are distinct places that later became Charleston, West Virginia, and Charles Town, West Virginia, respectively, and neither is to be confused with Charleston, South Carolina.

We must have a market for human flesh, or we are ruined.

—  Frederick Douglass, on the predominant message from the Southern states to the U.S. government before the American Civil War, The Frederick Douglass Papers, vol. II, p. 405

A–C

D–F

Antebellum city directories from slave states are valuable primary sources on the trade: Slave dealers listed in the 1855 directory of Memphis, Tennessee, included Bolton & Dickens, Nathan Bedford Forrest and Josiah Maples operating at 87 Adams as Forrest & Maples, Neville & Cunningham, and Byrd Hill Slave dealers 1855 Memphis Tennessee.jpg
Antebellum city directories from slave states are valuable primary sources on the trade: Slave dealers listed in the 1855 directory of Memphis, Tennessee, included Bolton & Dickens, Nathan Bedford Forrest and Josiah Maples operating at 87 Adams as Forrest & Maples, Neville & Cunningham, and Byrd Hill
Slave dealers listed in the 1861 directory of New Orleans, Louisiana, including C. F. Hatcher, Walter L. Campbell, R. H. Elam, Poindexter & Little, C. M. Rutherford, and J. M. Wilson Slave dealers in 1861 New Orleans city directory Dul1.ark 13960 t5n880n68-seq 501.jpg
Slave dealers listed in the 1861 directory of New Orleans, Louisiana, including C. F. Hatcher, Walter L. Campbell, R. H. Elam, Poindexter & Little, C. M. Rutherford, and J. M. Wilson
Slave dealers listed in the 1861 Louisville, Kentucky, city directory, including Tarleton and Jordan Arterburn Slave dealers in Louisville, Kentucky, City Directory, 1861.jpg
Slave dealers listed in the 1861 Louisville, Kentucky, city directory, including Tarleton and Jordan Arterburn

G–H

Accounts of slave trading prior to 1830 are less common than accounts from 1830 to 1860, but this political column name-drops several: Eli Odom, Isaac Franklin, John L. Harris, Thomas Rowan, Gen. Woolfolk, Rice Ballard, John Armfield--all while perpetuating the long-running debate over whether or not U.S. President Andrew Jackson was a "negro trader" in the early 1800s ("Means Used to Elect Col. Bingaman" The Mississippi Free Trader, October 15, 1841) "Means Used to Elect Col. Bingaman." The Mississippi Free Trader, October 15, 1841,.jpg
Accounts of slave trading prior to 1830 are less common than accounts from 1830 to 1860, but this political column name-drops several: Eli Odom, Isaac Franklin, John L. Harris, Thomas Rowan, Gen. Woolfolk, Rice Ballard, John Armfield —all while perpetuating the long-running debate over whether or not U.S. President Andrew Jackson was a "negro trader" in the early 1800s ("Means Used to Elect Col. Bingaman" The Mississippi Free Trader, October 15, 1841)
Andrew Jackson's business model and actions as part of Coleman Green & Jackson met the definition of "slave trader" as understood by abolitionists, but as a campaign issue it fell flat, according to historian Robert Gudmestad, in part because "Southerners wanted to believe that there was a small group of itinerant traders who created most of the difficulties. It was this type of speculator, most thought, who destroyed slave families, escorted coffles, sold diseased slaves, and concealed the flaws of bondservants. They were the 'slave-dealers.' All others who bought or sold slaves, even if they did so on a full-time basis, were innocent." (1828 publication, Miscellaneous Pamphlet Collection, Library of Congress) Loc.ark 13960 t2d79d217-seq 7.jpg
Andrew Jackson's business model and actions as part of Coleman Green & Jackson met the definition of "slave trader" as understood by abolitionists, but as a campaign issue it fell flat, according to historian Robert Gudmestad, in part because "Southerners wanted to believe that there was a small group of itinerant traders who created most of the difficulties. It was this type of speculator, most thought, who destroyed slave families, escorted coffles, sold diseased slaves, and concealed the flaws of bondservants. They were the 'slave-dealers.' All others who bought or sold slaves, even if they did so on a full-time basis, were innocent." (1828 publication, Miscellaneous Pamphlet Collection, Library of Congress)

I–L

M, Mc

Frederic Bancroft noted that in many towns "the same man dealt in horses, mules and slaves. ("Yazoo City Livery Stable: Horses, Mules, Negroes, &c, &c. bought and sold on commission." The Yazoo Democrat, March 18, 1846) Yazoo City Livery Stable Horses Mules Negroes c c bought and sold on commission.jpg
Frederic Bancroft noted that in many towns "the same man dealt in horses, mules and slaves. ("Yazoo City Livery Stable: Horses, Mules, Negroes, &c, &c. bought and sold on commission." The Yazoo Democrat, March 18, 1846)

N–P

Traders including Shadrack F. Slatter, Walter L. Campbell, Joseph Bruin, and J. M. Wilson all used this site at Esplanade and Chartres (previously Moreau) in New Orleans at various times Esplanade Chartres Moreau New Orleans image dated 1866 New Orleans Notarial Archives.jpg
Traders including Shadrack F. Slatter, Walter L. Campbell, Joseph Bruin, and J. M. Wilson all used this site at Esplanade and Chartres (previously Moreau) in New Orleans at various times

R–S

T–Y

"Slave Transfer Agencies" listed in an 1854 Southern business directory, including Thomas Foster in New Orleans, a C. M. Rutherford partnership, and G. M. Noel in Memphis Southern business directory 1854 - slave transfer agencies.jpg
"Slave Transfer Agencies" listed in an 1854 Southern business directory, including Thomas Foster in New Orleans, a C. M. Rutherford partnership, and G. M. Noel in Memphis
Eyre Crowe, "Slave sale, Charleston, S.C.," published in The Illustrated London News, Nov. 29, 1856: The flag tied to a post beside the steps reads "Auction This Day by Alonzo J. White"; in 1856, Alonzo J. White, along with fellow slave traders Louis D. DeSaussure and Ziba B. Oakes, opposed a new South Carolina law requiring that slave sales take place indoors rather than on the streets. Their argument was that the law was "an impolitic admission that would give 'strength to the opponents of slavery' and 'create among some portions of the community a doubt as to the moral right of slavery itself.'" Slave sale, Charleston, S.C. LCCN2006687271.jpg
Eyre Crowe, "Slave sale, Charleston, S.C.," published in The Illustrated London News , Nov. 29, 1856: The flag tied to a post beside the steps reads "Auction This Day by Alonzo J. White"; in 1856, Alonzo J. White, along with fellow slave traders Louis D. DeSaussure and Ziba B. Oakes, opposed a new South Carolina law requiring that slave sales take place indoors rather than on the streets. Their argument was that the law was "an impolitic admission that would give 'strength to the opponents of slavery' and 'create among some portions of the community a doubt as to the moral right of slavery itself.'"
Boat landings at Memphis and Vicksburg c. 1913, perhaps not looking so different than they did when they were used as slave-trade hubs Landings at Memphis and Vicksburg circa 1913.jpg
Boat landings at Memphis and Vicksburg c. 1913, perhaps not looking so different than they did when they were used as slave-trade hubs
"Thomson Negro Trader" had mail waiting for him in Little Rock, Arkansas, in November 1859 Letters Waiting.jpg
"Thomson Negro Trader" had mail waiting for him in Little Rock, Arkansas, in November 1859

It's old Van Horn, de nigger trader
 Hilo! Hilo!
He sold his wife to buy a nigger
 Hilo! Hilo!
He sold her first to Louisianner
 Hilo! Hilo!
And den from dat to Alabammer
 Hilo! Hilo!

— said to be a fragment of a much longer "negro corn-shucking song," also called a working song or field holler; published 1859 [352]

I never knew a slave-trader that did not seem to think, in his heart, that the trade was a bad one. I knew a great many of them, such as Neal, McAnn, Cobb, Stone, Pulliam, and Davis, &c. They were like Haley, they meant to repent when they got through.

— Letter of Lewis Hayden to Harriet Beecher Stowe [353]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Alexandria, District of Columbia was retroceded to Virginia in 1847. The slave trade was banned in Washington as part of the Compromise of 1850; traders moved there facilities across the Potomac River and went back to work. [58]
  2. ↑ Charles Town, Virginia became Charles Town, West Virginia in 1863.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slave trade in the United States</span>

The internal slave trade in the United States, also known as the domestic slave trade, the Second Middle Passage and the interregional slave trade, was the mercantile trade of enslaved people within the United States. It was most significant after 1808, when the importation of slaves from Africa was prohibited by federal law. Historians estimate that upwards of one million slaves were forcibly relocated from the Upper South, places like Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Missouri, to the territories and then-new states of the Deep South, especially Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">C. F. Hatcher</span> American slave trader (~1814–1869)

Charles F. Hatcher, typically advertising as C. F. Hatcher, was an 19th-century American slaver dealing out of Natchez, Mississippi, and New Orleans, Louisiana. He also worked as a trader of financial instruments, specie, and stocks, and as a land agent, with a special interest in selling Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas real estate to speculators and settlers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Franklin and Armfield Office</span> Historic house in Virginia, United States

The Franklin and Armfield Office, which houses the Freedom House Museum, is a historic commercial building in Alexandria, Virginia. Built c. 1810–1820, it was first used as a private residence before being converted to the offices of the largest slave trading firm in the United States, started in 1828 by Isaac Franklin and John Armfield. Another source, using ship manifests in the National Archives, gives the number as "at least 5,000".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forks of the Road slave market</span> Natchez, Mississippi, U.S. (1830s–1860s)

The Forks of the Road was a slave market in Natchez, Mississippi in the United States. The Forks of the Road market was located about a mile from downtown Natchez at the intersection of the ironically named Liberty Road and Washington Road, which has since been renamed to D'Evereux Drive in one direction and St. Catherine Street in the other. The market differed from many other slave sellers of the day by offering individuals on a first-come first-serve basis rather than selling them at auction, either singly or in lots. At one time the Forks of the Road was the second-largest slave market in the United States, trailing only New Orleans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bolton, Dickens & Co.</span> American slave-trading business

Bolton, Dickens & Co. was a slave-trading business of the antebellum United States, headquartered in Memphis, Tennessee. Several of principals of the firm eventually shot and killed one another as part of a long-running dispute over money, events known as the Bolton–Dickens feud. A Bolton & Dickens account ledger survived the American Civil War and is a valuable primary source on the interstate slave trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bibliography of the slave trade in the United States</span>

This is a bibliography of works regarding the internal or domestic slave trade in the United States (1775–1865, with a measurable increase in activity after 1808, following the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shadrack F. Slatter</span> American slave trader and capitalist (1798–1861)

Shadrack Fluellen Slatter, usually listed as S. F. Slatter in advertisements and often called Col. Slatter in later life, was a 19th-century American slave trader and capitalist. In the 1830s and 1840s he was part of the coastwise slave trade in partnership with his older brother Hope H. Slatter, who bought slaves in Baltimore for S. F. Slatter to sell at New Orleans. It was typical for interstate traders like the Slatters to have a buying location in the Upper South and a selling location in the Lower South. After quitting the retail slave trade, he was a real estate developer and landlord in New Orleans. In the late 1850s he was heavily involved in promoting and funding the freelance invasion of Nicaragua by William Walker. Fort Slatter in Nicaragua was named in Slatter's honor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bernard M. Campbell and Walter L. Campbell</span> American slave traders

Bernard Moore Campbell and Walter L. Campbell operated an extensive slave-trading business in the antebellum U.S. South. B. M. Campbell, in company with Austin Woolfolk, Joseph S. Donovan, and Hope H. Slatter, has been described as one of the "tycoons of the slave trade" in the Upper South, "responsible for the forced departures of approximately 9000 captives from Baltimore to New Orleans." Bernard and Walter were brothers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</span>

Slave markets and slave jails in the United States were places used for the slave trade in the United States from the founding in 1776 until the total abolition of slavery in 1865. Slave pens, also known as slave jails, were used to temporarily hold enslaved people until they were sold, or to hold fugitive slaves, and sometimes even to "board" slaves while traveling. Slave markets were any place where sellers and buyers gathered to make deals. Some of these buildings had dedicated slave jails, others were negro marts to showcase the slaves offered for sale, and still others were general auction or market houses where a wide variety of business was conducted, of which "negro trading" was just one part.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jordan Arterburn and Tarlton Arterburn</span> 19th-century American interstate slave traders

Jordan Arterburn (1808–1875) and Tarlton Arterburn (1810–1883) were brothers and interstate slave traders of the 19th-century United States. They typically bought enslaved people in their home state of Kentucky in the upper south, and then moved them to Mississippi in the lower south, where there was a constant demand for enslaved laborers on the plantations of King Cotton. Their "negroes wanted" advertisements ran in Louisville newspapers almost continuously from 1843 to 1859. In 1876, Tarlton Arterburn claimed they had taken profits of "30 to 40 percent a head" during their slave-trading days, and that Northern abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe had visited the Arterburn slave pen in Louisville while researching Uncle Tom's Cabin and A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin. There is now a historical marker in Louisville at former site of the Arterburn slave jail, acknowledging the myriad abuses and human-rights violations that took place there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theophilus Freeman</span> 19th-century American slave trader

Theophilus Freeman was a 19th-century American slave trader of Virginia, Louisiana and Mississippi. He was known in his own time as wealthy and problematic. Freeman's business practices were described in two antebellum American slave narratives—that of John Brown and that of Solomon Northup—and he appears as a character in both filmed dramatizations of Northrup's Twelve Years a Slave.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John J. Poindexter</span> American slave trader (~1816–1870)

John Jenkins Poindexter was an American slave trader, commission merchant, school commissioner, and steamboat master of Louisiana and Mississippi. He served in the Mexican-American War as a junior officer in the Mississippi Rifles. The historic John J. Poindexter House in Jackson, Mississippi, was commissioned for the young Poindexter family and designed in the 1840s by architect William Nichols.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">William A. Pullum</span> American slave trader (~1809–1876)

William A. Pullum was a 19th-century American slave trader, and a principal of Griffin & Pullum. He was based in Lexington, Kentucky, and for many years purchased, imprisoned, and shipped enslaved people from Virginia and Kentucky south to the Forks-of-the-Road slave market in Natchez, Mississippi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thomas McCargo</span> American slave trader (c. 1790–aft. 1854)

Thomas McCargo, also styled Thos. M'Cargo, was a 19th-century American slave trader who worked in Virginia, Kentucky, Mississippi and Louisiana. He is best remembered today for being one of the slave traders aboard the Creole, which was a coastwise slave ship that was commandeered by the enslaved men aboard and sailed to freedom in the British Caribbean. The takeover of the Creole is considered the most successful slave revolt in antebellum American history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">George Kephart</span> American slave trader (1811–1888)

George Kephart was a 19th-century American slave trader, land owner, farmer, and philanthropist. A native of Maryland, he was an agent of the interstate trading firm Franklin & Armfield early in his career, and later occupied, owned, and finally leased out that company's infamous slave jail in Alexandria. In 1862, Henry Wilson of Massachusetts mentioned Kephart by name in a speech on the floor of the U.S. Senate as one of the traders who had "polluted the capital of the nation with this brutalizing traffic" of selling people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seth Woodroof</span> American slave trader (~1805–1875)

Seth Woodroof was a slave trader based in Lynchburg in central Virginia, United States. He was an interstate trader who ran what the Lynchburg Museum called the "most active and infamous" slave pen in the city. He is believed to have been actively trading from approximately 1830 until the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861. Woodroof sat on the Lynchburg city council from 1858 to 1865.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">R. H. Elam</span> 19th-century American slave trader

Robert H. Elam, usually advertising as R. H. Elam, was an American interstate slave trader who worked in Tennessee, Kentucky, Louisiana, and Mississippi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Torture of slaves in the United States</span> Historical trend

Torture of slaves in the United States was fairly common, as part of what many slavers claimed was necessary discipline. Slaves in the United States were considered chattel, meaning they were legally treated as personal property, akin to livestock.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elihu Creswell</span> American slave trader (~1811–1851)

Elihu Creswell was an "extensive negro trader" of antebellum Louisiana, United States. Raised in an elite family in the South Carolina Upcountry, Creswell eventually moved to New Orleans, where he specialized in "acclimated" slaves, meaning people who had spent most of their lives enslaved in the Mississippi River basin so they were more likely to have acquired immunity to the region's endemic contagious diseases. This gave him a market niche distinct from many of his competitors, who typically imported slaves from Chesapeake region of the Upper South, or from border states as far as west as Missouri. Unique among slave traders, Creswell's will provided for the manumission of his slaves and moreover provided for their transportation to "the free United States of America." His mother, the other major beneficiary of his will, contested this provision. The legal documentation of the case and the "succession of Elihu Creswell" is a valuable primary source on the slave trade in New Orleans and the history of slavery in Louisiana. A judge ultimately rejected Sarah Hunter Creswell's petition and in 1853 when the steamer Cherokee departed New Orleans, among the passengers aboard were 51 free people of color bound for New York.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">C. M. Rutherford</span> American slave trader (c. 1810–aft. 1866)

Calvin Morgan Rutherford, generally known as C. M. Rutherford, was a 19th-century American interstate slave trader. Rutherford had a wide geographic reach, trading nationwide from the Old Dominion of Virginia to as far west as Texas. Rutherford had ties to former Franklin & Armfield associates, worked in Kentucky for several years, advertised to markets throughout Louisiana and Mississippi, and was a major figure in the New Orleans slave trade for at least 20 years. Rutherford also invested his money in steamboats and hotels.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ CAMP (1865). The Camp of Freedom. A Plea for the Coloured Freedman. Reprinted from the "Eclectic" for April, 1865. George Watson. p. 7.
  2. ↑ Blassingame, John W. (1973). "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880". Journal of Social History. 6 (4): 463–488. doi:10.1353/jsh/6.4.463. ISSN   0022-4529. JSTOR   3786511.
  3. ↑ Tadman, Michael (September 18, 2012). "Chapter 28. Internal Slave Trades". In Smith, Mark M.; Paquette, Robert L. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0029.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Dew, Charles B. (2016). The making of a racist : a southerner reflects on family, history, and the slave trade. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. pp. 101–103, 117, 144 (last sale). ISBN   9780813938882. LCCN   2015043815.
  5. ↑ Rothman, A. (April 1, 2009). "Slavery and National Expansion in the United States". OAH Magazine of History. 23 (2): 23–29. doi:10.1093/maghis/23.2.23. ISSN   0882-228X.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Sherwin, Oscar (1945). "Trading in Negroes". Negro History Bulletin. 8 (7): 160–166. ISSN   0028-2529. JSTOR   44214396.
  7. ↑ Bancroft (2023), p. 96.
  8. ↑ Bancroft (2023), p. 125.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tadman, Michael (1996). "The Hidden History of Slave Trading in Antebellum South Carolina: John Springs III and Other "Gentlemen Dealing in Slaves"". The South Carolina Historical Magazine. 97 (1): 6–29. ISSN   0038-3082. JSTOR   27570133.
  10. ↑ Johnson (2009), p. 48.
  11. ↑ "The Project Gutenberg eBook of Letters of a Traveller, by William Cullen Bryant". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  12. ↑ "The Ottawa Free Trader 08 Nov 1856, page Page 1". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  13. 1 2 3 Stowe (1853), p. 353.
  14. 1 2 Stowe (1853), p. 357.
  15. ↑ "Ran away in Jail". Richmond Enquirer. May 5, 1820. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bancroft (2023), pp. 175–177.
  17. 1 2 "South Carolina—Barnwell District". The Charleston Mercury. January 14, 1846. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Schermerhorn (2015), p. 116.
  19. 1 2 Rothman, Joshua D. "Before the Civil War, New Orleans Was the Center of the U.S. Slave Trade". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
  20. ↑ "Three Negro Men". The Liberator. September 21, 1833. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-12.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "The Public Meeting". Mississippi Free Trader. April 26, 1833. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  22. ↑ "$10 Reward". Vicksburg Whig. February 19, 1834. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  23. ↑ "Was committed to the Jail of Adams County". The Natchez Weekly Courier. December 13, 1843. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 "New Orleans, Louisiana, City Directory, 1861", U.S., City Directories, 1822-1995, pp. 83 (Buford), 280 (Little, slave dealer) 281 (Locket, negro trader), 305 (Martin), 489 (slave dealers), 2011 – via Ancestry.com
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 Pritchett, Jonathan B. (1997). "The Interregional Slave Trade and the Selection of Slaves for the New Orleans Market". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 28 (1): 57–85. doi:10.2307/206166. ISSN   0022-1953. JSTOR   206166.
  26. ↑ "South Carolina, Sumter District". Camden Commercial Courier. May 12, 1838. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  27. ↑ The National Archives in Washington D.C.; Record Group: Records of the Bureau of the Census; Record Group Number: 29; Series Number: M432; Residence Date: 1850; Home in 1850: Louisville District 2, Jefferson, Kentucky; Roll: 206; Page: 185b - occupation Negro dealer
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fitzpatrick (2008), p. 29.
  29. ↑ "Seventy Negroes FOR SALE at the Ferry Landing". The Weekly American Banner. December 20, 1844. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  30. ↑ "Seventy Negroes". The Weekly American Banner. June 13, 1845. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  31. ↑ "Negroes for Sale". Vicksburg Daily Whig. November 12, 1846. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-22.
  32. 1 2 Sellers (2015), p. 159.
  33. ↑ "The Kidnappers". The Baltimore Sun. October 20, 1842. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-08-12.
  34. ↑ "$100 Reward". Fayetteville Weekly Observer. March 1, 1843. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  35. 1 2 "Dissolution". Weekly Columbus Enquirer. October 25, 1853. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  36. 1 2 "Williams' Atlanta Directory 1859–60" (PDF).
  37. ↑ "Rice C. Ballard Papers (UNC Libraries)". FromThePage.com. Retrieved 2023-08-04.
  38. ↑ "Sheriff's Sale". The Democrat. September 3, 1845. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
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