Lithuanian Civil War (1381–84)

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Lithuanian Civil War of 1381–1384
Part of Vytautas–Jogaila power struggle
Treaty of Dovydiskes between Jogaila and Order.png
The apparent cause of the civil war: Treaty of Dovydiškės
DateAugust 1381 – July 1384
Location Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Result Temporary Vytautas and Jogaila reconciliation
Belligerents

Den tyske ordens skjold.svg Teutonic Knights

Coat of arms of Samogitia.svg Samogitia 		Herb Pogon Litewska.jpg Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Commanders and leaders
Kęstutis
Vytautas
Winrich von Kniprode
Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein
Jogaila
Skirgaila

The Lithuanian Civil War of 1381–1384 was the first struggle for power between the cousins Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania and later King of Poland, and Vytautas the Great. It began after Jogaila signed the Treaty of Dovydiškės with the Teutonic Knights which was aimed against his uncle Kęstutis, father of Vytautas. Kęstutis briefly seized power in the Grand Duchy, but was betrayed by adherents of Jogaila primarily from Vilnius. During negotiations for a truce Kęstutis and Vytautas were arrested and transported to the Kreva Castle. Kęstutis died there a week later but Vytautas managed to escape and then sought an alliance with the Teutonic Knights. Subsequently their joint forces raided Lithuanian lands. Eventually the cousins were reconciled as Jogaila needed internal stability in anticipation of negotiations with the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Kingdom of Poland regarding the possible Christianization of Lithuania. The war did not settle the power struggle; it continued during the next Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392) which was resolved by the signing of the Ostrów Agreement. After more than ten years of struggle, Vytautas finally became the Grand Duke of Lithuania and ruled the country for thirty-eight years.

Treaty of Dovydiškės

The Treaty of Dovydiškės, Daudiske, or Daudisken was a secret treaty signed on May 31, 1380 between Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Winrich von Kniprode, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights. The treaty was directed against Jogaila's uncle Kęstutis and its effect was to precipitate the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384).

Kęstutis monarch of medieval Lithuania

Kęstutis was a ruler of medieval Lithuania. He was the Duke of Trakai and governed the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 1342–1382, together with his brother Algirdas, and with his nephew Jogaila. He ruled over the Lithuanians and Ruthenians.

Vilnius City in Lithuania

Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 574,147 as of 2018. Vilnius is in the southeast part of Lithuania and is the second largest city in the Baltic states. Vilnius is the seat of the main government institutions of Lithuania and the Vilnius District Municipality.

Contents

Background

Brothers Algirdas and Kęstutis peacefully co-ruled the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. [1] Algirdas, who was the Grand Duke, spent most of his time dealing with the eastern provinces of the Grand Duchy, inhabited by Slavic people of Orthodox faith. Kęstutis in the name of Algirdas handled most of the affairs in the western part, including defense against the Teutonic Knights. [1] Algirdas died in 1377 and left the throne to Jogaila, his eldest son from the second marriage with Uliana of Tver. Kęstutis and Vytautas continued to collaborate with Jogaila even when his right of inheritance was challenged by Andrei of Polotsk, Algirdas' eldest son from his first marriage with Maria of Vitebsk. [2]

Algirdas was a ruler of medieval Lithuania. He ruled the Lithuanians and Ruthenians from 1345 to 1377. With the help of his brother Kęstutis he created an empire stretching from the present Baltic states to the Black Sea and to within fifty miles of Moscow.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania European state from the 12th century until 1795

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state that lasted from the 13th century to 1795, when the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and Austria.

Eastern Orthodox Church Christian Church

The Eastern Orthodox Church, officially the Orthodox Catholic Church, is the second-largest Christian church, with approximately 200–260 million members. It operates as a communion of autocephalous churches, each governed by its bishops in local synods, although roughly half of Eastern Orthodox Christians live in Russia. The church has no central doctrinal or governmental authority analogous to the Bishop of Rome, but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is recognised by all as primus inter pares of the bishops. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Near East.

The Teutonic Knights continued their crusade against pagan Lithuania. A large campaign was organized in winter of 1378, during which the Teutons reached Brest and as far as the Pripyat River. [3] The Livonian Order raided Upytė, and another campaign threatened the capital in Vilnius. [2] In summer 1379, Jogaila's brother Skirgaila was sent to the Knights to discuss the situation, possible ways of converting to Christianity, and termination of the Livonian Order's support to Andrei. [4] The details of the trip however remain unknown; rumors had it that he also visited the Holy Roman Emperor. [5] While the purpose or the outcome of the trip are unclear, it was often cited as the first intrigue behind Kęstutis' back. [6] In the meantime Kęstutis offered to negotiate a truce with the Knights and an exchange of prisoners. On September 29, 1379, a ten-year truce was signed in Trakai. It was the last treaty that Kęstutis and Jogaila signed jointly. [3] It was followed by a three-day secret negotiations between Jogaila and the Knights in Vilnius. [7] However, the truce protected only the Christian lands in the south, while Kęstutis' pagan realms in northern and western Lithuania were still vulnerable to Teutonic attacks. [8]

Brest, Belarus Place in Brest Region, Belarus

Brest, formerly Brest-Litowsk, is a city in Belarus at the border with Poland opposite the Polish city of Terespol, where the Bug and Mukhavets rivers meet. It is the capital city of the Brest Region.

Pripyat River river in Belarus and Ukraine

The Pripyat River or Prypiat River is a river in Eastern Europe, approximately 761 km (473 mi) long. It flows east through Ukraine, Belarus, and Ukraine again, draining into the Dnieper.

Livonian Order Autonomous branch of knights of the Teutonic Order active 1237 to 1561

The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, formed in 1237. It was later a member of the Livonian Confederation, from 1435 to 1561.

In February 1380, Jogaila, without Kęstutis, made a five-month truce with the Livonian Order to protect his Lithuanian domains and cease Livonian support to Andrei of Polotsk. [2] On May 31, 1380, Jogaila and Grand Master Winrich von Kniprode signed the secret Treaty of Dovydiškės. The clauses of the treaty were, overall, convoluted and not entirely clear. [9] Based on the terms of the accord, Jogaila agreed not to intervene during attacks by the Teutonic Knights against Kęstutis or his children. However, if providing aid to Kęstutis were necessary to avoid any suspicions, it would not be a violation of the treaty. [10] The treaty remains controversial as the motives behind it are not entirely clear. Some historians blame Uliana, mother of Jogaila, or his adviser Vaidila, [11] others point out generational differences: Kęstutis was about 80 years old and determined not to accept Christianity, while Jogaila was about 30 and was looking for ways to convert and modernize the country. [12] Still others have suggested that the treaty was primarily directed against Andrei and his allies – his brother Dmitry of Bryansk and Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitri Donskoi. [8] Jogaila, having secured his western front, allied himself with the Golden Horde against the Grand Duchy of Moscow for the upcoming Battle of Kulikovo. [2]

Winrich von Kniprode German noble

Winrich von Kniprode was the 22nd Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights. He was the longest serving Grand Master, holding the position for 31 years (1351–1382).

Vaidila Lithuanian noble, brother-in-law of Jogaila

Vaidila was a favorite and brother-in-law of Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania. The Lithuanian Chronicles present Vaidila as a kitchen assistant who rose to the top and entered the nobility only through his marriage to Jogaila's sister Maria in 1379. However, this portrayal is likely biased propaganda. It was a known practice to denounce political opponents as a common peasant. The Teutonic Knights mention that boyar Vaidila ruled Wegebeticht and Wayteldorff.

Golden Horde Mongol Khanate

The Golden Horde was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire after 1259 it became a functionally separate khanate. It is also known as the Kipchak Khanate or as the Ulus of Jochi.

Civil war

Kęstutis' coup and Jogaila's counter-coup

Vytautas and Kestutis imprisoned by Jogaila. Painting by Wojciech Gerson Wojciech-Gerson-Kiejstut i Witold.jpg
Vytautas and Kęstutis imprisoned by Jogaila. Painting by Wojciech Gerson

In early 1381, without violating the Treaty of Dovydiškės, the Teutonic Knights raided the Duchy of Trakai and Samogitia twice. [2] While raiding towards Trakai, the Teutonic Knights used bombards for the first time [13] and destroyed Naujapilis, taking some 3,000 prisoners. [8] In August 1381, Kuno von Liebenstein, komtur of Osterode and godfather of Danutė of Lithuania, informed Kęstutis about the secret treaty. [8] When Kęstutis asked Vytautas if he knew anything about it, he denied any knowledge and suspected a Teutonic trap. [10] In fall 1381, Kęstutis took advantage of Polotsk's rebellion against Skirgaila. Jogaila was away to subdue the rebellion and his absence provided a good opportunity to capture Vilnius, the capital of the Grand Duchy. [11] Kęstutis became the Grand Duke while Jogaila was taken prisoner on his way back to Vilnius. [11] [12] Vaidila was executed. [14] Jogaila pledged his loyalty to Kęstutis, was released, and received his patrimony, Kreva and Vitebsk. [2] Kęstutis then resumed war with the Teutonic Knights: his army raided Warmia and attempted to capture Georgenburg (Jurbarkas). [3]

Duchy of Trakai was a subdivision of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the 14th and early 15th centuries. The Duke of Trakai was an important position held either by the Grand Duke of Lithuania himself or his second-in-command.

Samogitia Ethnographic region in Lithuania

Samogitia or Žemaitija is one of the five ethnographic regions of Lithuania. Žemaitija is located in northwestern Lithuania. Its largest city is Šiauliai. Žemaitija has a long and distinct cultural history, reflected in the existence of the Samogitian dialect.

Bombard (weapon) cannon

The bombard is a cannon or mortar used throughout the Middle Ages and the early modern period; a large caliber, muzzle-loading artillery piece mainly used during sieges to shoot round stone projectiles at the walls of enemy fortifications to enable troops to break in. Most bombards were made of iron and used gunpowder to launch the projectiles. There are many examples of bombards, including Mons Meg, the Dardanelles Gun, and the handheld bombard. Larger bombards are sometimes included in the family of superguns.

On June 12, 1382, while Kęstutis was away to fight Dymitr Korybut of Novhorod-Siversky, who refused to pay taxes, and Vytautas was away in Trakai, [5] residents of Vilnius, led by the merchant Hanul of Riga, let Jogaila's army into the city. [2] The merchants were dissatisfied with Kęstutis' policies as they were hurting the economy, especially trade with Livonia. [2] Vytautas attempted to gather his forces in Trakai and attack Vilnius, but Jogaila recaptured the throne. On July 6, he signed the two-month Truce of Bražuolė with the Teutonic Knights. [3] Vytautas retreated from Trakai in the face of the joint forces of the Teutonic Order and Jogaila, and the city surrendered on July 20. [15] In the meantime Kęstutis rallied his supporters in Samogitia, his son Vytautas sought soldiers in Hrodna, and his brother Liubartas recruited in Galicia–Volhynia. [8] On August 3, 1382, the armies of Kęstutis and Jogaila met near Trakai for a decisive battle, but it never began. [2] According to Teutonic sources, Kęstutis saw that Jogaila, aided by the Teutonic Knights, had superior forces when his Samogitian contingent was reluctant to fight. [2] Both sides agreed to negotiate. Kęstutis and Vytautas arrived in Jogaila's camp, but were arrested and sent to a prison in the Kreva Castle. [11] Their army was disbanded. On August 15, five days after imprisonment, Kęstutis was found dead by Skirgaila. [12] Jogaila claimed that he had hanged himself, but rumors spread that he had been strangled. [5] Jogaila organized a large pagan funeral to Kęstutis: his body was burned along with horses, weapons, and other treasures in Vilnius. [5]

Hanul of Riga also Hennecke, Hannike, Hans, Hanco, Hanulo was a merchant from Riga of German origin, a burgess of Vilnius. In 1382–87, he was namiestnik (mayor) of Vilnius. In 1382, during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–84) between Jogaila and Kęstutis, Hanul led the city residents and surrendered Vilnius to Jogaila, who was soon to be crowned as King of Poland. He was later the trusted advisor of Jogaila and Skirgaila and participated in many diplomatic missions. He also contributed to the establishment of trade relations between Lithuania and Poland.

Trakai City in Dzūkija, Lithuania

Trakai is a historic city and lake resort in Lithuania. It lies 28 kilometres west of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Because of its proximity to Vilnius, Trakai is a popular tourist destination. Trakai is the administrative centre of Trakai district municipality. The town covers 497.1 square kilometres of area and, according to 2007 estimates, is inhabited by 5,357 people. A notable feature of Trakai is that the town was built and preserved by people of different nationalities. Historically, communities of Karaims, Tatars, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Poles lived here.

Liubartas King of Rus

Demetrius of Liubar or Liubartas was Prince of Lutsk and Liubar (Volhynia) (1323–1383), Prince of Zhytomyr (1363–1374), Grand Prince of Volhynia (1340–1383), Grand Prince of Galicia and Volhynia (1340–1349).

Vytautas' escape

Vytautas remained in prison until fall 1382. He managed to escape with help from his wife Anna, who received permission to visit her husband. According to different sources Vytautas exchanged clothes with either Anna or one of her female servants and sneaked out undetected. [16] First he sought help from his sister Danutė and her husband Janusz I of Warsaw, then he turned to Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia. [17] Eventually he came to his enemies, the Teutonic Knights, asking for protection and military aid against Jogaila. According to Wigand of Marburg, Birutė, mother of Vytautas, was drowned in Brest, likely in response to his escape. [14] [18] Two of her relatives, Vidimantas and Butrimas, were also murdered. [14]

The Knights received Vytautas without enthusiasm. [3] At the time Jogaila was negotiating with the Teutonic Order. On October 31, 1382, they formulated the Treaty of Dubysa in three separate acts. [19] It was a reward for their help in defeating Andrei and Kęstutis. [5] In it, Jogaila promised to accept Christianity within four years, become an ally of the Order, not to initiate a war without Order's approval, and cede Samogitia, which still supported Vytautas, up to the Dubysa River. [19] However, ratification of the treaty was continuously put off. One of the reasons for the cooling relations was a war in Masovia, that Jogaila had started without consulting the Knights. [17] The Knights also attempted to play Vytautas and Jogaila off against each other. [17] Other historians suggest that Jogaila was already thinking about an alliance with either Moscow or Poland. [8] Eventually, in June 1383, a scheduled meeting between Jogaila and the Grand Master did not take place on a formal pretext and the alliance broke down. [17] The Knights resumed their war with Lithuania.

Reconciliation

In early September, the Knights and Vytautas briefly took control of Trakai and unsuccessfully attacked Vilnius. [17] On October 21, 1383, in Tapiau, in a small ceremony Vytautas was baptized in the Catholic rite, receiving the name of Wigand (Lithuanian: Vygandas) after his godfather Wigand, komtur of Ragnit. [20] Vytautas received New Marienburg, a castle on the Neman River near the mouth of Dubysa, where he was joined by his relatives and followers, banished from their estates by Jogaila. [21] They included his brother Tautvilas Kęstutaitis. Vytautas also attempted to secure support from the Samogitians. On January 30, 1384, in Königsberg, Vytautas signed the Treaty of Königsberg and promised to become the Order's vassal and to cede part of Samogitia to the Teutonic Order, up to the Nevėžis River and including Kaunas. [20] In May 1384, the Knights started constructing a new fortress in Kaunas, called New Marienverder. [21] On June 14, 1384, Vytautas renewed his promises, given in January in Königsberg, in this newly built fortress. [22]

In the meantime Jogaila, probably influenced by his Orthodox mother Uliana of Tver, [19] sought an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Moscow. He was making preparations to marry Sophia, daughter of Dmitri Donskoi, and be baptized in the Orthodox rite. [23] In order to carry out this plan he had to reconcile with Vytautas and end the civil war. [12] In spring 1384, Jogaila offered him Volhynia with Lutsk, but Vytautas refused, demanding to return his entire patrimony, which included Trakai, then governed by Skirgaila. Then Jogaila promised to return Trakai as soon as Skirgaila established himself in Polotsk. [3] In July, Vytautas agreed and decided to abandon the Teutonic Knights. He then proceeded to burn two Teutonic castles on the Neman River (New Marienburg and Georgenburg). [21] New Marienverder was besieged for six weeks by joint forces of Jogaila and Vytautas before it fell. [13] During these attacks Vytautas captured Marquard von Salzbach, who later played an important role in Vytautas' relationship with the Knights.

Aftermath

Vytautas returned to Lithuania without a clear written agreement with Jogaila. He received Hrodna, Brest, Podlaskie, Vawkavysk. [20] In order to receive Volhynia after the death of his uncle Liubartas, Vytautas was baptized in the Orthodox rite. [22] [24] Skirgaila continued to rule Trakai. Vytautas pledged loyalty to Jogaila and became one of the many regional dukes. Jogaila was considering different baptism proposals. He had already refused the Treaty of Dubysa with the Teutonic Knights. He negotiated with Moscow, but it was a dangerous ally and Orthodoxy would not save Lithuania from attacks by the Teutonic Knights. [19] Furthermore, Muscovy lost some of its power and influence after the siege of Moscow in 1382 by the Mongols. [1] A third option was presented by Poland: it was looking for a suitable groom for Jadwiga of Poland and a worthy candidate to become King of Poland. In August 1385, Jogaila signed the Union of Krewo, promising to Christianize Lithuania, marry Jadwiga, and form a personal union between Lithuania and Poland. [25] In 1386, he was baptized and crowned King. Skirgaila was left as his regent in Lithuania. Taking advantage of Jogaila's absence, Andrei of Polotsk renewed his bid for the throne of Lithuania. During this time Vytautas remained loyal and helped Jogaila and Skirgaila to defeat Andrei. [3]

On April 28, 1387, after Andrei's defeat, Skirgaila received Polotsk and Trakai – thus breaking the promise given to Vytautas that he would receive Trakai when Skirgaila received Polotsk. [3] Trying to appease his cousin, Jogaila gave him Lutsk (but left a Pole in charge of Lubart's Castle) and Volodymyr-Volynskyi. [3] [22] This did not help and the relationship turned sour. At the same time dissatisfaction with Skirgaila's rule continued to grow among the Lithuanians, who resented growing Polish influence in the state. They wanted to maintain Lithuanian legal distinctiveness and reserve offices for the Lithuanians. [26] The duped Teutonic Knights continued to demand Samogitia and continued to wage war. All these circumstances allowed Vytautas to renew his struggle for power. He escaped to the Teutonic Knights for the second time and waged another civil war. It ended with the Ostrów Agreement of 1392, wherein Vytautas acknowledged fealty to Jogaila and was granted extensive autonomy in Lithuania. Thus he became the Grand Duke of Lithuania and started his 38-year reign.

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Karigaila was a son of Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his second wife Uliana of Tver. He became the ruler of Mstsislaw after he captured it from the Principality of Smolensk. He is sometimes mistaken for his brother Constantine, who was the founder of the House of Czartoryski.

The Treaty of Königsberg was signed in Königsberg (Królewiec) on 30 January 1384, during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384) between Vytautas the Great and representatives of the Teutonic Knights. Vytautas waged a civil against his cousin Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania and future King of Poland, and allied himself with the Teutonic Knights. In order to secure Teutonic support in the civil war, Vytautas signed the treaty and granted Samogitia up to the Nevėžis River and Kaunas to the Knights. In 1382 Jogaila promised the Knights Samogitia only up to the Dubysa River, but never ratified the Treaty of Dubysa. Samogitia was important for the Knights as this territory physically separated them from uniting with the Livonian order in the north. Vytautas also promised to become Order's vassal. In February several Samogitian regions acknowledged their support to Vytautas and the Knights.

The Treaty of Lyck was a treaty between Vytautas the Great, future Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the Teutonic Knights, represented by Marquard von Salzbach, komtur Arnold von Bürglen, and Thomas, son of Lithuanian duke Survila. It was signed on 19 January 1390 in Lyck, State of the Teutonic Order,. Vytautas, in exchange for a military alliance against his cousin Jogaila during the Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392), agreed to cede Samogitia up to the Nevėžis River and become the Order's vassal. In essence Vytautas confirmed the Treaty of Königsberg (1384) that he had signed with the Knights during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384). Once betrayed, the Knights now asked for hostages as a guarantee of Vytautas' loyalty. The Order demanded as hostages his two brothers Sigismund and Tautvilas, wife Anna, daughter Sophia, sister Rymgajla, brother-in-law Ivan Olshanski, and a number of other nobles.

Samogitian uprisings

Samogitian uprisings refer to two uprisings by the Samogitians against the Teutonic Knights in 1401–1404 and 1409. Samogitia was granted to the Teutonic Knights by Vytautas the Great, Grand Duke of Lithuania, several times in order to enlist Knights' support for his other military affairs. The local population resisted Teutonic rule and asked Vytautas to protect them. The first uprising was unsuccessful and Vytautas had to reconfirm his previous promises to transfer Samogitia in the Peace of Raciąż. The second uprising provoked the Knights to declare war on Poland. Hostilities escalated and resulted in the Battle of Grunwald (1410), one of the biggest battles of medieval Europe. The Knights were soundly defeated by the joint Polish–Lithuanian forces, but Vytautas and Jogaila, King of Poland, were unable to capitalize on their victory. Conflicts regarding Samogitia, both diplomatic and military, dragged until the Treaty of Melno (1422).

References

  1. 1 2 3 Rowell, S. C. (2000). "Baltic Europe". In Michael Jones. The New Cambridge Medieval History c.1300–c.1415. VI. Cambridge University Press. pp. 709–710. ISBN   0-521-36290-3.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kiaupa, Zigmantas; Jūratė Kiaupienė; Albinas Kunevičius (2000) [1995]. The History of Lithuania Before 1795 (English ed.). Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of History. pp. 124–126. ISBN   9986-810-13-2.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ivinskis, Zenonas (1988) [1930]. "Vytauto jaunystė ir jo veikimas iki 1392 m.". In Paulius Šležas. Vytautas Didysis (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vyriausioji enciklopedijų redakcija. pp. 7–32. OCLC   25726071.
  4. ↑ Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. p. 168. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. pp. 170–171. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  6. ↑ Kučinskas, Antanas (1988) [1938]. Kęstutis (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 159. OCLC   25726077.
  7. ↑ Kučinskas, Antanas (1988) [1938]. Kęstutis (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 161. OCLC   25726077.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 (in Lithuanian)Ivinskis, Zenonas (1978). Lietuvos istorija iki Vytauto Didžiojo mirties. Rome: Lietuvių katalikų mokslo akademija. pp. 271–279. LCC   79346776.
  9. ↑ Baranauskienė, Inga (May 2005). "Kas buvo Kęstučio nužudymo organizatrius?". Naujasis židinys - aidai (in Lithuanian). 5 (173): 180–186. Archived from the original on 2008-02-29. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
  10. 1 2 Jonynas, Ignas (1937). "Dovydiškės sutartis". In Vaclovas Biržiška. Lietuviškoji enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). VI. Kaunas: Spaudos Fondas. pp. 1341–1344.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Koncius, Joseph B. (1964). Vytautas the Great, Grand Duke of Lithuania. Miami: Franklin Press. pp. 21–23. LCC   66089704.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Jakštas, Juozas (1984). "Lithuania to World War I". In Ed. Albertas Gerutis. Lithuania: 700 Years. translated by Algirdas Budreckis (6th ed.). New York: Manyland Books. pp. 57–58. ISBN   0-87141-028-1. LCC   75-80057.
  13. 1 2 Christiansen, Eric (1997). The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. pp. 164–165. ISBN   0-14-026653-4.
  14. 1 2 3 Rowell, S. C. (Spring 1994). "Pious Princesses or Daughters of Belial: Pagan Lithuanian Dynastic Diplomacy, 1279–1423". Medieval Prosopography. 15 (1): 25. ISSN   0198-9405.
  15. ↑ Kučinskas, Antanas (1988) [1938]. Kęstutis (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 173. OCLC   25726077.
  16. ↑ (in Lithuanian)Jonynas, Ignas (1984) [1932]. "Vytauto šeimyna". Istorijos baruose. Vilnius: Mokslas. pp. 35–38. LCC   84212910.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. pp. 173–174. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  18. ↑ Gudavičius, Edvardas (2004). "Birutė". In Vytautas Spečiūnas. Lietuvos valdovai (XIII-XVIII a.): enciklopedinis žinynas (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. pp. 74–75. ISBN   5-420-01535-8.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Kiaupa, Zigmantas; Jūratė Kiaupienė; Albinas Kunevičius (2000) [1995]. The History of Lithuania Before 1795 (English ed.). Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of History. pp. 127–128. ISBN   9986-810-13-2.
  20. 1 2 3 Simas Sužiedėlis, ed. (1970–1978). "Vytautas the Great". Encyclopedia Lituanica . VI. Boston, Massachusetts: Juozas Kapočius. pp. 208–209. LCC   74-114275.
  21. 1 2 3 Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. pp. 175–177. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  22. 1 2 3 Gudavičius, Edvardas (2004). "Vytautas Didysis". In Vytautas Spečiūnas. Lietuvos valdovai (XIII-XVIII a.): enciklopedinis žinynas (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. pp. 79–80. ISBN   5-420-01535-8.
  23. ↑ Gieysztor, Aleksander (1998). "The kingdom of Poland and the grand duchy of Lithuania, 1370–1506". The New Cambridge Medieval History, c.1415–c.1500. 7. Cambridge University Press. p. 731. ISBN   0-521-38296-3.
  24. ↑ Urban, William (2006). Samogitian Crusade. Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. p. 178. ISBN   0-929700-56-2.
  25. ↑ Davies, Norman (2005). God's Playground: A History of Poland. The Origins to 1795. I (Revised ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN   978-0-19-925339-5.
  26. ↑ Stone, Daniel Z. (2001). The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 18. ISBN   0-295-98093-1.
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