In the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, Bachelors of Arts (BAs) are promoted to the rank of Master of Arts (MA), typically upon application after three or four years after graduation. No further examination or study is required for this promotion, which is a mark of seniority rather than an additional postgraduate qualification.[1][2][3]
While these universities also award postgraduate master's degrees that require further study and examination, they do not award the title 'MA' for any postgraduate degree.[4] This practice differs from that of most universities worldwide, where the MA reflects further postgraduate study. As a result, these degrees are often referred to as the Oxford and Cambridge MA and the Dublin or Trinity MA to distinguish them.[5] Similarly, in the ancient Scottish universities, the degree of Master of Arts is awarded as an undergraduate degree in certain subjects.
Upon promotion to MA, graduates no longer wear the academic dress or use the post-nominal letters associated with the Bachelor of Arts.
This system dates back to the Middle Ages when the study of the liberal arts typically took seven years. At that time, students often entered university at a much younger age than is common today, sometimes as young as 14 or 15. The basic university education comprised the Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the Quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music), which together took about seven years of full-time study.
During this period, a student would first earn a baccalaureate, or Bachelor's degree, after completing part of their studies. The division between the trivium and quadrivium did not always correspond to the division between the BA and MA degrees, though it was adopted at Cambridge during the Tudor period and remained in place long after other European universities had moved away from it. At the University of Paris, the baccalaureate was awarded soon after responsions (the matriculation exam), while at Oxford and Cambridge the BA was granted much later and became more significant over time.
Upon being admitted to the degree of Master of Arts, a student would become a full member of the university and gain the right to vote in the Convocation. The new MA could then teach at the university for a set number of years, during which time they were referred to as a 'regent' or 'regent master.' Upon completing this period of teaching, they would become a 'non-regent master' and either leave the university or remain to pursue further studies in one of the higher faculties—Divinity, Canon or Civil Law, or Medicine.
Over time, it became possible to study in these higher faculties as a BA, although a graduate could not be promoted to a higher degree until they had the seniority required to become an MA. As the requirements for the BA increased, the requirements for the MA gradually diminished. By the 18th century, the practice had largely become a formality, and students could meet residency requirements (once fulfilled by attending lectures) simply by keeping their names on the college books. In 1800, Oxford introduced modern-style examinations for the BA and MA degrees, but the MA examination was abolished in 1807.
From at least the 16th century, noblemen formed the most select group of undergraduates, paying four times the normal fees and sometimes receiving an MA degree after just two years of residence, without completing the BA degree. However, many did not stay long enough to graduate. Noblemen were distinguished by gold tassels on their mortarboard caps, compared to the black ones worn by students of lower social ranks.[6] Students of the next rank—fellow-commoners at Cambridge and Dublin or gentlemen commoners at Oxford—paid twice the standard fees, dined with the fellows, and were exempt from attending lectures and performing exercises required for the BA. They could graduate a year earlier than students in lower ranks. However, at Cambridge, both higher categories were still required to take the Senate House Examination to receive an honours degree.[7] Below these were commoners at Oxford or pensioners at Cambridge and Dublin, who paid the standard fees and were more likely to remain and graduate. At the bottom were servitors at Oxford and sizars at Cambridge and Dublin, who had their fees subsidized by the college in exchange for menial duties. Oliver Goldsmith was a sizar; Isaac Newton was a subsizar. These distinctions were gradually phased out during the 19th century.
Reforms in the late 16th century allowed some ordinary undergraduates to bypass the BA stage altogether. Previously, it was necessary to wait three years after earning a BA to become a bachelor of laws or medicine, but after paying a fine, students could leave college after three years of residence to study at the Inns of Court or a teaching hospital, and return for a professional bachelor's degree, as was the case with William Blackstone.
Although the length of undergraduate degree programs has been reduced to three or four years in all subjects, the MA degree at Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin is still awarded roughly seven years after matriculation. This reflects the fact that much of the liberal arts education has been transferred to grammar schools, with students now entering university at an older age, typically between 17 and 19. (In France, the school-leaving certificate is still called the Baccalauréat.)
Durham University (which awarded its first MA in 1838) and the University of London (first MA awarded in 1840) broke away from the ancient English model by treating the MA as a distinct higher degree, awarded after further examination.[8][9][10] However, by instituting further study beyond the initial baccalaureate, these universities can be seen to have reverted to the ancient model. Most modern universities followed their lead, with the Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin system becoming the exception. Some universities adopted the ancient model temporarily, allowing progression within the same faculty, such as from BSc to MSc, but later switched to the newer system.
Among the "steamboat ladies" (female students at Oxford and Cambridge who were awarded ad eundem degrees by the University of Dublin between 1904 and 1907, at a time when their own universities refused to confer degrees upon women), some, like Julia Bell, earned MAs.[11]
Historical examples at other universities
While today only Cambridge, Oxford, and Trinity College, Dublin promote students to the degree of Master of Arts three years after graduation, this was a practice at other colleges before the 20th century.
In the United States, Harvard University engaged in this practice from the mid-1600s until 1872.[12] At Yale University, an MA without examination was award from its foundation until 1871.[13] Likewise, Columbia University awarded the Master of Arts in this manner from its origins as King's College, during which, in 1761, three of the five members of the original graduating class of 1758 were promoted to Master of Arts.[14] The practice was abolished by the Board of Trustees in June 1880, when a formal exam for the Master of Arts was introduced.[15]
Other American colleges in the mid to late 1800s, awarded a Master of Arts "in course" to graduates of three years standing, including at Amherst College and Union College.[16][17]
Requirements
At Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, a Bachelor of Arts graduate may "incept" as a Master of Arts after a certain period, without further examination or residence but sometimes upon payment of a fee.
At Oxford, the MA can be conferred after the twenty-first term following matriculation (typically seven years after entering the university) upon holders of an Oxford BA or Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA).[18] Holders of other undergraduate Oxford degrees, such as Bachelor of Theology or Master of Mathematics, are not entitled to the MA.[19]
At Cambridge, the MA may be conferred six years after the first term in residence upon holders of a Cambridge BA. The previous rule that the BA must be held for two years before applying for the MA was suspended for many due to delays caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.[20] The MA can also be awarded to senior university or college staff after three years of employment.
At Dublin, the MA may be conferred on holders of a Dublin BA after three years, provided they have completed at least nine terms of residence. A fee is payable, though it is waived for graduates of over fifty years' standing.[21]
There are other situations in which the MA may be awarded, such as to members of staff, but these are the most common. Specific regulations can be found in the statutes of the respective universities.[18][20][21]
In accordance with the formula of ad eundem gradum, a form of mutual recognition among the three universities, a graduate entitled to an MA degree from one institution may have the equivalent title conferred by one of the other two without further examination.[22][23]
Post-nominal style
Masters of Arts of the three universities may use the post-nominal letters "MA". Although honours are sometimes awarded for the examinations leading to the BA degree, the style "MA (Hons)" is not used. The abbreviated name of the university (Oxon, Cantab or Dubl) is often appended in parentheses to the initials "MA" (e.g. "John Smith, MA (Cantab)), so that it is clear that these are nominal and unexamined titles.[1][2][3] Additionally, the BA degree is not shown alongside the MA award; only the MA should be used.[24]
If someone incorporates from one of the above universities to another, the Latin et can be inserted between the university names, e.g. "MA (Oxon et Cantab)", etc. as opposed to "MA (Oxon), MA (Cantab)" which would indicate that the holder graduated BA at both universities.[citation needed]
The Oxford University Gazette and University Calendar have, since 2007, used Oxf rather than Oxon (also Camb rather than Cantab and Dub rather than Dubl) to match the style used for other universities.
The degree of Master of Arts traditionally carried various rights and privileges, the chief of which was membership of the legislative bodies of the universities – Convocation at Oxford and the Senate at Cambridge and Dublin. These were originally important decision-making bodies, approving changes to the statutes of the universities and electing various officials, including the two members of Parliament for each university. Inception to the MA degree was the principal way of becoming a member of these bodies, though it is not the only way, e.g. at Oxford Doctors of Divinity, Medicine and Civil Law were always also automatically members of Convocation. Today, the main role of Convocation and Senate is the election of the Chancellor of each university as well as the Professor of Poetry at Oxford and the High Steward at Cambridge.
The privileges accorded to MAs and other members of Convocation/Senate were formerly very important. At Oxford, until 1998 the Proctors only had the power to discipline "junior members" (those who had not been admitted to membership of Convocation), which meant that any graduate student who had incepted as an MA was immune from their authority. At Cambridge, MAs and those with MA status continue to be exempt from the rules governing the ownership of motor vehicles by students. Other privileges intended for academic staff and alumni, e.g. the right to dine at High Table, to attend Gaudies, to walk upon college lawns, etc., are in most colleges restricted to MAs, which excludes the majority of graduate students.
For Cambridge, membership of the Senate is no longer limited to the MA[25] and in 2000, Oxford opened membership of Convocation to all graduates.[26]
For Dublin, the right to elect senators to the upper house of the Irish parliament, Seanad Éireann, is now restricted to those who are Irish citizens and since 1918 the franchise was extended to include all graduates, not only those with an MA.[27]
Precedence
The MA degree gives its holder a particular status in the universities' orders of precedence/seniority.[28][29] In the University of Oxford a Master of Arts enjoys precedence, standing, and rank before all doctors, masters, and bachelors of the university who are not Masters of Arts, apart from Doctors of Divinity and Doctors of Civil Law. Precedence, standing, and rank were formerly important for determining eligibility for appointments such as fellowships, but now generally have only a ceremonial significance.
In Oxford, until 2000 the university statutes required that all members of Congregation (the academic and senior staff of the university) have at least the degree of DD, DM, DCL or MA or have MA status. This linked back to the MA as the licence to teach in the university. MA status was thus routinely granted to academics from other universities who came to take up positions within the university; while it is no longer granted in this way, many members of Congregation appointed before 2000 retain MA status.
In Cambridge, the status of MA is automatically accorded to graduates of other universities studying in Cambridge who are aged 24 or older (graduate students under 24 years are given BA status). This entitles them to wear the appropriate Cambridge gown, but without strings.[30]
For the above cases, the status is not a degree so is automatically relinquished upon leaving the University (in the case of Oxford) or completion of their degree (for Cambridge).
Criticism
In 2000, research by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education showed that 62% of employers were unaware that the Cambridge MA did not represent any kind of postgraduate achievement involving study.[31] The same survey found widespread ignorance amongst employers regarding university-level qualifications in general: 51% believed the EdinburghMA to be a postgraduate qualification, 22% were unaware that a Doctorate in Business Administration was a higher qualification than an undergraduate Diploma of Higher Education, and 40% thought that a BA or BSc was a postgraduate degree.[32]
In February 2011, the then Labour MP for Nottingham East, Chris Leslie, sponsored a private member's bill, the Master's Degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill 2010–12, to "prohibit universities awarding Master's degrees unless certain standards of study and assessment are met".[33][34] The bill's second reading debate occurred on 21 October 2011, but ran out of time.[34][33]
A Tripos is an academic examination that originated at the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. They include any of several examinations required to qualify an undergraduate student for a bachelor's degree or the courses taken by a student to prepare for these. Undergraduate students studying mathematics, for instance, ultimately take the Mathematical Tripos, and students of English literature take the English Tripos.
The ancient universities are British and Irish medieval universities and early modern universities founded before the year 1600. Four of these are located in Scotland, two in England, and one in Ireland. The ancient universities in Great Britain and Ireland are amongst the oldest extant universities in the world. The ancient universities in Britain are part of twenty-seven culturally significant institutions recognised by the British monarchy as privileged bodies of the United Kingdom.
The University of Dublin, corporately designated as the Chancellor, Doctors and Masters of the University of Dublin, is a research university located in Dublin, Ireland. It is the degree-awarding body for Trinity College Dublin. It was founded in 1592 when Queen Elizabeth I issued a royal charter for Trinity College as "the mother of a university", thereby making it Ireland's oldest operating university. It was modelled after the collegiate universities of Oxford and Cambridge, but unlike these affiliated ancient universities, only one college was ever established; as such, the designations "Trinity College Dublin" and "University of Dublin" are usually synonymous for practical purposes.
A Bachelor of Arts is the holder of a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate program in the liberal arts, or, in some cases, other disciplines. A Bachelor of Arts degree course is generally completed in three or four years, depending on the country and institution.
A master's degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice. A master's degree normally requires previous study at the bachelor's level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. Within the area studied, master's graduates are expected to possess advanced knowledge of a specialized body of theoretical and applied topics; high order skills in analysis, critical evaluation, or professional application; and the ability to solve complex problems and think rigorously and independently.
A bachelor's degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years. The two most common bachelor's degrees are the Bachelor of Arts (BA) and the Bachelor of Science. In some institutions and educational systems, certain bachelor's degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate educations after a first degree has been completed, although more commonly the successful completion of a bachelor's degree is a prerequisite for further courses such as a master's or a doctorate.
Undergraduate education is education conducted after secondary education and before postgraduate education, usually in a college or university. It typically includes all postsecondary programs up to the level of a bachelor's degree. For example, in the United States, a student pursuing an associate or bachelor's degree is known as an undergraduate student while a student pursuing a master's or doctoral degree is a graduate student. Upon completion of courses and other requirements of an undergraduate program, the student would earn the corresponding degree. In some other educational systems, undergraduate education is postsecondary education up to and including the level of a master's degree; this is the case for some science courses in Britain and some medicine courses in Europe.
Bachelor of Civil Law is the name of various degrees in law conferred by English-language universities. The BCL originated as a postgraduate degree in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge; at Oxford, the BCL continues to be the primary postgraduate taught course in law. It is also taught as an undergraduate degree in other countries. The reference to civil law was not originally in contradistinction to common law, but to canon law, although common law was not taught in the civil law faculties in either university until at least the second half of the 18th century. However, some universities in English-speaking countries use the degree in the former sense.
The University of Oxford has a long tradition of academic dress, which continues to the present day.
Degree abbreviations are used as an alternative way to specify an academic degree instead of spelling out the title in full, such as in reference books such as Who's Who and on business cards. Many degree titles have more than one possible abbreviation, with the abbreviation used varying between different universities. In the UK it is normal not to punctuate abbreviations for degrees with full stops, although this is done at some universities.
The system of academic degrees at the University of Oxford originates in the Middle Ages and has evolved since the university's founding in 1096.
An ad eundem degree is an academic degree awarded by one university or college to an alumnus of another, in a process often known as incorporation. The recipient of the ad eundem degree is often a faculty member at the institution which awards the degree, e.g. at the University of Cambridge, where incorporation is expressly limited to a person who "has been admitted to a University office or a Headship or a Fellowship of a College, or holds a post in the University Press ... or is a Head-elect or designate of a College".
The University of Cambridge has a long tradition of academic dress, which it traditionally refers to as academical dress. Almost every degree which is awarded by the University has its own distinct gown in addition to having its own hood. Undergraduates wear college gowns, which are all subtly different; these differences enable the wearer's college to be determined. Academic dress is worn quite often in Cambridge on formal, and sometimes informal, occasions, and there are a number of rules and customs governing when and how it is worn. Black gowns (undress) are worn at less formal events, while on special occasions full academical dress is worn, consisting of gown, hood and headdress with Doctors in festal dress. The University's officials also have ancient forms of academic dress, unique to the University.
In Western universities, a Bachelor of Divinity or Baccalaureate in Divinity is an academic degree awarded for a course taken in the study of divinity or related disciplines, such as theology or, rarely, religious studies.
A Master of Philosophy is a postgraduate degree. It may be awarded to postgraduate students after completing taught coursework and one to two years of original research, which may also serve as a provisional enrolment for a PhD programme.
A Master of Arts is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Those admitted to the degree have typically studied subjects within the scope of the humanities and social sciences, such as history, literature, languages, linguistics, public administration, political science, communication studies, law or diplomacy; however, different universities have different conventions and may also offer the degree for fields typically considered within the natural sciences and mathematics. The degree can be conferred in respect of completing courses and passing examinations, research, or a combination of the two.
Master's degrees in Europe are the second cycle of the Bologna process, following on from undergraduate bachelor's degrees and preceding third cycle doctorates. Master's degrees typically take two years to complete, although the number of years varies between countries, and correspond to 60 – 120 ECTS credits. Within the European Higher Education Area, representing almost all countries in Europe, master's degrees are referenced to the Framework of Qualifications for the European Higher Education Area and national qualifications frameworks.
Academic dress prescribed at the Trinity College Dublin follows a relatively complex protocol which, nonetheless, shares some particular characteristics with other universities in Ireland and with its sister institutions at the University of Oxford and University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom.
A master's degree in the United Kingdom is an academic degree awarded by universities or colleges in most cases upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.
In 1920, the University of Oxford admitted women to degrees for the first time during the Michaelmas term. The conferrals took place at the Sheldonian Theatre on 14 October, 26 October, 29 October, 30 October and 13 November. That same year, on 7 October, women also became eligible for admission as full members of the university.
↑ Peter Searby, A History of the University of Cambridge, vol. III, 1750–1870, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 68–69
↑ C. E. Whiting (29 June 1937). "Durham University Centenary". Yorkshire Post. Retrieved 12 December 2015– via British Newspaper Archive. The M.A. degree at Oxford and Cambridge had degenerated, and was granted to Bachelors of three years' standing on the payment of certain fees. At Durham, the B.A. had to keep residence for three extra terms and pass what seems to have been an honours examination to proceed to the Master's degree, and for a number of years classes were awarded in the M.A. examination.
1 2 "Chapter 4: Regulations for the Degree of Master of Arts". University of Oxford Examination Decrees and Regulations for the Academic Year 2005–2006. Oxford University Press. 2005. p.563.
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