Microplastics effects on human health are a subject of growing concern and an area of research. The tiny particles known as microplastics (MPs), have been found in various environmental and biological matrices, including air, water, food, and human tissues. Microplastics, defined as plastic fragments smaller than 5 mm, and even smaller particles such as nanoplastics (NP), particles smaller than 1000 nm in diameter (0.001 mm or 1 μm), have raised concerns impacting human health. [1] In scientific literature, combined microplastics and nanoplastics are referred to as MNPs or NMPs or NMPPs for nano-and microplastic particles.
The major routes of exposure include ingestion, skin contact, and inhalation. MNPs can remain in the organ of entry or enter systemic circulation to bioaccumulate in various tissues [2] depending on size. MNPs above 150 μm or 10 μm in diameter do not enter the blood and remain in tissues [3] whereas particles below 200 nm pass through intestinal barriers and reach extracellular spaces. [4]
Direct ingestion includes drinking water, [5] [6] beer, [7] honey and sugar, [8] table salt, [9] [10] and indoor airborne particulates falling on open meals. [11] [12] [13] Indirect ingestion includes toothpaste, face wash, scrubs, [14] [15] and soap [16] [17] and enter systemic circulation.
Recent studies have shown the presence of microplastics in breast milk, often leading to exposures in very young children. While it has already been established that chemicals [18] such as flame retardants [19] [20] [21] and pesticides [22] have been detected in breast milk, knowledge about microplastics is limited in comparison. A study in 2022 [23] found plastics smaller than five millimeters in diameter in 75% of breast milk samples examined. It has been suggested that these plastics are especially dangerous for young children due to their role as hormone disruptors. Exposure during developmental stages can lead to long lasting developmental defects or other issues later in life. While these detected levels were not above the currently established thresholds for unsafe levels, they show another possible route for microplastic ingestion. For some native population in north Canada and people who live near industrial factories, it is sometimes suggested by pediatricians that mothers not nurse their children, [24] over fear of ingestion of microplastics and other potentially harmful chemicals. It has been suggested that mothers should directly breast feed their children instead of from a bottle. Studies have shown that pumping milk, freezing it in plastic bags, then subsequently heating it up will increase the contamination of microplastics in the milk. [25] Similar results have been seen from heating plastic reusable food containers in a microwave, showing the release of both microplastics and nanoplastics. [26] It has been suggested that mothers try to avoid ingesting microplastics themselves, to try and avoid passing them onto their children through breastfeeding. Studies have shown that drinking water from plastic bottles has significantly greater detectable plastic content than tap water. [27]
This is skin penetration through wounds and pores such as sweat glands and hair follicles [2] as the skin interacts with MNP-contaminated media such as soil, water [28] [29] and cosmetics enter systemic circulation.
This is indoor and outdoor airborne entry into the respiratory system [30] [12] [31] from upholstery and household furniture [32] to urban dust, rubber tires and synthetic fibers. [2] MNPs can remain in the lungs or be ingested via mucociliary clearance [33] to enter the systemic circulation.
Incidental generation of MNPs is mechanical or environmental degradation or industrial processes such as plastic manufacturing (heating and chemical condensation) and intentional generation of MNPs occur during 3D printing.
Acute inhalation is the main route of workplace exposure is acute inhalation. [33] Workplace exposure can be high concentration and lasting the duration of a shift and thus short-term whereas exposure outside of work is at low concentration and long-term. [34] The concentration of worker exposure is orders of magnitude higher than the general population (e.g., 4×1010 particles per m3 from extrusion 3D printers [35] versus 50 particles per m3 in the general environment [36] ).
High chronic exposure to aerosolized MNPs occur in: the synthetic textile industry, the flocking industry, and the plastics industry consisting of the Vinyl Chloride supplier and the Polyvinyl Chloride manufacturer. [37]
The potential health impacts of microplastics vary based on factors, such as their particle sizes, shape, exposure time, chemical composition (enriched with heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), etc.), surface properties, and associated contaminants. [63] [64] Experimental and observational studies in mammals have suggested that microplastics and nanoplastics exposure may have adverse effects on human health, such as:
Laboratory investigations demonstrate that microplastics can damage human cells, triggering allergic reactions and cell death. [81] MPs may also disrupt hormone function, potentially contributing to weight gain. [82] [83]
Despite growing concern and evidence, most epidemiologic studies have focused on characterizing exposures. Epidemiological studies directly linking microplastics to adverse health effects in humans remain yet limited and research is ongoing to determine the full extent of potential harm caused by microplastics and their long-term impact on human health. [84] [85]
In a cohort study involving 304 patients who were undergoing carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery disease in 3 Italian hospitals, polyethylene was detected in carotid artery plaque of 150 patients (58.4%) with a mean level of 21.7±24.5 μg per milligram of plaque; 31 patients (12.1%) also had measurable amounts of polyvinyl chloride, with a mean level of 5.2±2.4 μg per milligram of plaque. Those with carotid artery plaque in which MNPs were detected had a higher risk of a composite of myocardial infarction, stroke, or death from any cause at 34 months of follow-up than those in whom MNPs were not detected. [86]
As April 2024, there is no established NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) for MNPs due to limited data on exposure levels to adverse health effects, the absence of standardization to characterize the heterogeneity of MNPs by chemical composition and morphology, and difficulty in measuring airborne MNPs. [87] [88] And thus, safety measures focus on the hierarchy of controls for nanomaterials with good industrial hygiene to implement source emission control with local exhaust ventilation, air filtration, and nonventilating engineering controls such as substitution with less hazardous materials, administrative controls, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for skin and respiratory protection. [89]
Research from the U.S. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Nanotechnology Research Center (NTRC) show local exhaust ventilation and High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filtration to be effective mitigation to theoretically filter 99.97% of nanoparticles down to 0.3 microns. [89]
Environmental health is the branch of public health concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment affecting human health. To effectively control factors that may affect health, the requirements that must be met to create a healthy environment must be determined. The major sub-disciplines of environmental health are environmental science, toxicology, environmental epidemiology, and environmental and occupational medicine.
Phthalates, or phthalate esters, are esters of phthalic acid. They are mainly used as plasticizers, i.e., substances added to plastics to increase their flexibility, transparency, durability, and longevity. They are used primarily to soften polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Note that while phthalates are usually plasticizers, not all plasticizers are phthalates. The two terms are specific and unique and cannot be used interchangeably.
Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural and residential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as well. It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide. Since most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans. Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution, bilge pollution, atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining.
Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) is a phthalate ester having the structural formula C6H4(COOCH2CH 2)2. It is formed by the esterification of isobutanol and phthalic anhydride. This and other phthalates are used as plasticizers due to their flexibility and durability. They are found in many industrial and personal products, such as lacquers, nail polish and cosmetics. DIBP can be absorbed via oral ingestion and dermal exposure. When it comes to excretion, DIBP is first converted into the hydrolytic monoester monoisobutyl phthalate (MIBP). The primary excretory route is urine, with biliary excretion being noted in minor amounts. DIBP has lower density and freezing point than the related compound dibutyl phthalate (DBP).
A garbage patch is a gyre of marine debris particles caused by the effects of ocean currents and increasing plastic pollution by human populations. These human-caused collections of plastic and other debris are responsible for ecosystem and environmental problems that affect marine life, contaminate oceans with toxic chemicals, and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Once waterborne, marine debris becomes mobile. Flotsam can be blown by the wind, or follow the flow of ocean currents, often ending up in the middle of oceanic gyres where currents are weakest.
Marine plastic pollution is a type of marine pollution by plastics, ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down to microplastics formed from the fragmentation of plastic material. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic. Microplastics and nanoplastics result from the breakdown or photodegradation of plastic waste in surface waters, rivers or oceans. Recently, scientists have uncovered nanoplastics in heavy snow, more specifically about 3,000 tons that cover Switzerland yearly.
The environmental impact of the petroleum industry is extensive and expansive due to petroleum having many uses. Crude oil and natural gas are primary energy and raw material sources that enable numerous aspects of modern daily life and the world economy. Their supply has grown quickly over the last 150 years to meet the demands of the rapidly increasing human population, creativity, knowledge, and consumerism.
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be molded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to their widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.
The North Atlantic garbage patch is a garbage patch of man-made marine debris found floating within the North Atlantic Gyre, originally documented in 1972. A 22-year research study conducted by the Sea Education Association estimates the patch to be hundreds of kilometers across, with a density of more than 200,000 pieces of debris per square kilometer. The garbage originates from human-created waste traveling from rivers into the ocean and mainly consists of microplastics. The garbage patch is a large risk to wildlife through plastic consumption and entanglement.
Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length, according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the European Chemicals Agency. They cause pollution by entering natural ecosystems from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, food packaging, and industrial processes.
Particulates or atmospheric particulate matter are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture, as opposed to the particulate matter alone. Sources of particulate matter can be natural or anthropogenic. They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health, in ways additional to direct inhalation.
Ocean governance is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans. Within governance, it incorporates the influence of non-state actors, i.e. stakeholders, NGOs and so forth, therefore the state is not the only acting power in policy making. However, ocean governance is complex because much of the ocean is a commons that is not ‘owned’ by any single person or nation/state. There is a belief more strongly in the US than other countries that the “invisible hand” is the best method to determine ocean governance factors. These include factors such as what resources we consume, what price we should pay for them, and how we should use them. The underlying reasoning behind this is the market has to have the desire in order to promote environmental protection, however this is rarely the case. This term is referred to as a market failure. Market failures and government failures are the leading causes of ocean governance complications. As a result, humankind has tended to overexploit marine resources, by treating them as shared resources while not taking equal and collective responsibilities in caring for them.
The health effects of salt are the conditions associated with the consumption of either too much or too little salt. Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl) and is used in food for both preservation and flavor. Sodium ions are needed in small quantities by most living things, as are chloride ions. Salt is involved in regulating the water content of the body. The sodium ion itself is used for electrical signaling in the nervous system.
Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles in the Earth's environment that adversely affects humans, wildlife and their habitat. Plastics that act as pollutants are categorized by size into micro-, meso-, or macro debris. Plastics are inexpensive and durable, making them very adaptable for different uses; as a result, manufacturers choose to use plastic over other materials. However, the chemical structure of most plastics renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation and as a result they are slow to degrade. Together, these two factors allow large volumes of plastic to enter the environment as mismanaged waste which persists in the ecosystem and travels throughout food webs.
The plastisphere is a human-made ecosystem consisting of organisms able to live on plastic waste. Plastic marine debris, most notably microplastics, accumulates in aquatic environments and serves as a habitat for various types of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. As of 2022, an estimated 51 trillion microplastics are floating in the surface water of the world's oceans. A single 5mm piece of plastic can host 1,000s of different microbial species. Some marine bacteria can break down plastic polymers and use the carbon as a source of energy.
The Shaw Institute, formerly the Marine & Environmental Research Institute, is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit scientific research organization based in Blue Hill, Maine and New York City. The institute conducts research into ocean pollution, flame retardants, microplastics and plastic pollution, sentinel species and climate change.
Rubber pollution, similar to plastic pollution, occurs in various environments, and originates from a variety of sources, ranging from the food industry processing chain to tire wear. Synthetic and natural rubber dust and fragments now occur in food, airborne as particulates in air pollution, hidden in the earth as soil pollution, and in waterways, lakes and the sea.
Particulate pollution is pollution of an environment that consists of particles suspended in some medium. There are three primary forms: atmospheric particulate matter, marine debris, and space debris. Some particles are released directly from a specific source, while others form in chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Particulate pollution can be derived from either natural sources or anthropogenic processes.
Plasticosis is a form of fibrotic scarring that is caused by small pieces of plastic which inflame the digestive tract.
The Mediterranean Sea has been defined as one of the seas most affected by marine plastic pollution.
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