King's Highway401, commonly referred to as Highway 401 and also known by its official name as the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway or colloquially referred to as the four-oh-one,[3] is a controlled-access400-series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. It stretches 828 kilometres (514mi) from Windsor in the west to the Ontario–Quebec border in the east. The part of Highway401 that passes through Toronto is North America's busiest highway,[4][5] and one of the widest.[6][7] Together with Quebec Autoroute 20, it forms the road transportation backbone of the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, along which over half of Canada's population resides. It is also a Core Route in the National Highway System of Canada. The route is maintained by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) and patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police. The speed limit is 100km/h (62mph) throughout its length, with the only exceptions the posted 80km/h (50mph) limit westbound in Windsor and in most construction zones, along with a 110km/h (68mph) speed limit between Windsor and Tilbury.[8]
By the end of 1952, three individual highways were numbered "Highway401": the partially completed Toronto Bypass between Weston Road and Highway11 (Yonge Street); Highway2A between West Hill and Newcastle; and the Scenic Highway between Gananoque and Brockville, now known as the Thousand Islands Parkway. These three sections of highway were 11.8, 54.7 and 41.2km, (7.3, 34.0 and 25.6mi), respectively. In 1964, the route became fully navigable from Windsor to the Ontario–Quebec border. In 1965 it was given a second designation, the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway, in honour of two Fathers of Confederation. At the end of 1968, the Gananoque–Brockville section was bypassed and the final intersection grade-separated near Kingston, making Highway401 a freeway for its entire 817.9-km length. Since 2007, a portion of the highway between Trenton and Toronto has been designated the Highway of Heroes, as the route is travelled by funeral convoys for fallen Canadian Forces personnel from CFB Trenton to the coroner's office.
In 2011, construction began on a westward extension called the "Rt. Hon. Herb Gray Parkway". This new route follows but does not replace, the former Highway3 between the former end of the freeway and the E. C. Row Expressway, at which point it turns and parallels that route towards the site of the future Gordie Howe International Bridge. An 8-kilometre (5mi) section of the parkway, east of the E. C. Row interchange, opened on June 28, 2015, with the remaining section completed and opened on November 21. In the summer of 2019, the widening of the highway between Highway/Regional Road 8 in Kitchener to Highway/Regional Road 24 in Cambridge to twelve lanes was completed. There are plans underway to widen the remaining four-lane sections between Windsor and London to six lanes and to widen the route between Cambridge and Milton as well as through Oshawa. The expansive twelve-plus-lane collector–express system through Toronto and Pickering, and partially across Mississauga, was extended west to Milton in December 2022.
Highway401 extends across Southwestern, Central and Eastern Ontario. In anticipation of the future expansion of the highway, the transportation ministry purchased a 91.4-metre-wide (300ft) right-of-way along the entire length. Generally, the highway occupies only a portion of this allotment.[9] It is one of the world's busiest highways;[6] a 2016 analysis stated the annual average daily traffic (AADT) count between Weston Road and Highway400 in Toronto was nearly 420,000,[1] while a second study estimates that over 500,000vehicles travel that section on some days.[5] This makes it North America's busiest roadway, surpassing the Santa Monica Freeway in Los Angeles and I-75 in Atlanta.[7][10] The just-in-time auto parts delivery systems of the highly integrated automotive industry of Michigan and Ontario have contributed to the highway's status as the world's busiest truck route,[11] carrying 60percent of vehicular trade between Canada and the US.[7]
Highway401 also features North America's busiest multi-structure bridge at Hogg's Hollow in Toronto.[11] The four bridges, two for each direction with the collector and express lanes, carried an average of 373,700vehicles daily in 2006.[1] The highway is one of the major backbones of a network in the Great Lakes region, connecting the populous Quebec City–Windsor corridor with Michigan, New York and central Ontario's cottage country.[12] It is the principal connection between Toronto and Montreal, becoming Autoroute20 at the Ontario–Quebec border.[13]
Southwestern Ontario
Highway401 does not yet extend the last few kilometres to Detroit;[14] an extension to Brighton Beach (at the Canada–US border in Windsor) was completed in November 2015, after which the Gordie Howe International Bridge will extend Highway401 across the Canada–United States border to a connection through Delray to Interstate 75 in Michigan by the end of 2024.[15] At present, Highway401 begins as a six-lane freeway at the west end of the E. C. Row Expressway. At the Dougall Parkway, the highway turns east and exits Windsor.[16] From here, Highway401 mostly parallels the former route of Highway98 from Windsor to Tilbury.[17]
Southwestern Ontario is flat, primarily agricultural land, that takes advantage of the fertile clay soil deposited throughout the region.[18][19] The main river through the region is the Thames River, which drains the second largest watershed in southern Ontario and largely influences the land use surrounding the highway.[20] It parallels the route to the north between Tilbury and Woodstock.[16]
Near Tilbury, Highway401 loses its tall wall median barrier and narrows to four lanes, following lot lines laid between concession roads in a plan designed to limit damage to the sensitive agricultural lands through which the highway runs.[21] Here the highway's flat and straight route is notorious for leading to driver inattention.[22] The section from Windsor to London (especially west of Tilbury) has become known for deadly car accidents and pile-ups, earning it the nickname Carnage Alley.[23] As the highway approaches London, Highway402 merges in,[16] resulting in a six-lane cross-section.[24][25] Within London, it intersects the city's two municipal expressways, Highbury Avenue and the Veterans Memorial Parkway.[26]
The section between London and Woodstock generally parallels the former Highway2 but lies on the south side of the Thames River.[16] This area is not as flat but the highway is generally straight. This part of Highway401 often experiences heavy snowsqualls in early winter, sometimes extending as far east as Toronto. To the south of Woodstock, Highway401 curves northeast and the western terminus of Highway403 merges into it.[26] From here the highway heads towards Kitchener and Cambridge, substantially north of the route of the former Highway 2 as Highway 403 assumes the role of paralleling the former Highway 2 all the way to Mississauga. Heading towards Kitchener the highway intersects with Highway8 and returns to its eastward orientation.[16][27] Between Highway/Regional Road 8 and Highway/Regional Road 24 in Cambridge, the highway was widened in 2020 to twelve lanes to accommodate the growing traffic using that segment.[28][29][30] Beyond Highway/Regional Road 24, the highway returns to a six-lane cross section and meanders towards Milton, passing through hills and rock cuts along the way.[31]
Highway 401 at Weston Road has a volume of over 500,000 vehicles per day during the summer months.
Different colours are used on the signs on Highway 401's collector-express system to avoid confusion. The express lanes use green signs and the collector lanes use blue.
Highway401 widens into a collector-express system[38] (the first of three distinct sets) as it approaches James Snow Parkway in Milton, a concept inspired by the Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago.[9] The system divides each direction of travel into collector and express lanes,[39] giving the highway a wide span and four carriageways. To avoid confusion between carriageways, blue signs are used for the collector lanes and green signs for the express lanes. Unlike the collector lanes, which provide access to every interchange, the express lanes only provide direct access to a select few interchanges. Access between the two is provided by transfers, which are strategically placed to prevent disruptions caused by closely spaced interchanges.[40] The overall purpose of the collector-express system is to maximize traffic flow for both local and long-distance traffic. In addition, Highway401 was equipped with a traffic camera system called COMPASS in early 1991.[41] Using closed-circuit television cameras, vehicle detection loops and LED changeable-message signs, COMPASS enables the MTO Traffic Operations Centre to obtain a real-time assessment of traffic conditions and alert drivers of collisions, congestion and construction.[42] The system stretches from the Highway403/ 410 interchange in Mississauga to Harwood Avenue in Ajax.[43]
"The Basketweave", just east of the Highway 400 interchange, is a free-flowing crossover between the collector and express lanes.
The first collector-express section through the GTA is 4.6km (2.9mi) long and runs from James Snow Parkway to Highway407. Beyond Highway 407, the freeway briefly narrows to 10 lanes east to Winston Churchill Boulevard, where the second section begins and runs 16.7km (10.4mi) to Highway427; initially terminating just west of Highway410 in the early 1990s, but extended westward in stages during the 2010s to include the interchanges with Hurontario Street, Mavis Road, and Mississauga Road; with the final extension to Winston Churchill being completed in 2022.[44] This system was originally designed to accommodate and organize various traffic movements from the Highway403 / 410 and Highway427 interchanges along Highway401, replacing an earlier plan that would have run Highway403 directly to Eglinton Avenue and the never-built Richview Expressway.[45] As the highway enters Toronto proper at the interchange with Renforth Drive, the collector lanes diverge to become the ramps to and from Highway 427 northbound and southbound. The third, and longest, at 43.7km (27.2mi), system starts from Highway409 and continues through the city, ending at Brock Road in Pickering to the east.[46] The 5km (3.1mi) gap between the second and third systems is a traffic bottleneck as the freeway narrows to only eight lanes beneath Highway 427. However, the interchange with Highway427 cannot accommodate future widening of Highway401.[10]
Highway401 widens to 18lanes south of Toronto Pearson International Airport.[7] Progressing eastward, eight lanes are carried beneath the large spaghetti junction at Highway427. The highway curves northeast and follows a power transmission corridor to Highway409, which merges with the mainline and forms the collector lanes. It returns to its eastward route through Toronto, now carrying 12–16lanes of traffic on four carriageways.[38] Highway401 is often congested in this section, with an average of 442,900vehicles passing between Weston Road and Highway400 per day as of 2008.[1][7] In spite of this congestion, it is the primary commuting route in Toronto; over 50percent of vehicles bound for downtown Toronto use the highway.[47] East of Highway400 is The Basketweave, as each direction has a criss-crossing transfer between the express and collectors carriageways.[38] Near Yorkdale Shopping Centre, twelve lanes pass beneath a complicated interchange with Allen Road, built to serve the cancelled Spadina Expressway. Further east, the highway crosses Hogg's Hollow, over the West Don River and Yonge Street in the centre of Toronto, the busiest multi-span bridge crossing in North America, surpassing the Brooklyn Bridge. It then crosses the East Don River and climbs toward an interchange with the Don Valley Parkway and Highway404, which provides access to downtown Toronto and the suburbs to the north, respectively.[citation needed]
Highway401 just west of Leslie Street
Progressing eastward in Scarborough, the Highway401 continues through mostly residential areas and Scarborough City Centre including the shopping mall, eventually reaching the city's eastern edge where former Highway 2A merges into it at a vast interchange with Kingston Road and Port Union Road, and crossing the Rouge Valley into Pickering.[38]
West of Pickering, Highway401 again meets former Highway2, which thereafter parallels it to the Ontario–Quebec border.[16] As the highway approaches Brock Road in Pickering, the collector and express lanes converge, narrowing the 14-lane cross-section to 10, divided only at the centre.[48] It remains this width as it passes into Ajax,[38] before narrowing to six lanes at Salem Road.[49] Planned expansions east of Salem to improve flow leading into the Highway412 and Lakeridge Road interchanges will see the highway widened to ten lanes as far as Brock Street in Whitby, where the existing interchange will be reconfigured.[50]
East of Ajax, the highway passes through the second 3.5km (2.1mi) rural gap, and enters Whitby. The stretch of Highway401 through Whitby and Oshawa features several structures completed during the initial construction of the highway in the 1940s.[10] Several of these structures are to be demolished, either due to their age, or to prepare for the planned widening of Highway401 through this area.[51] A former Canadian National Railway overpass, which was fenced off but commonly used by pedestrians during Highway of Heroes repatriations, was demolished on the night of June 11, 2011. A second structure in Bowmanville was demolished during two overnight closures on July 9 and 16.[52] At Harmony Road, the suburban surroundings quickly transition to agricultural land. The highway curves around the south side of Bowmanville and travels towards Highway35 and Highway115.[34]
Traffic cameras are mounted at every exit within Toronto and form one part of the COMPASS system.
The collector-express system just east of the Highway 400 interchange, with the "Basketweave" transfers between them in the background.
Express to collector transfer
Winter conditions on Highway 401 in Toronto due to a snowsquall.
Newly-opened in 2022, collector-express system in Mississauga viewed from the pedestrian bridge that replaced the original one carrying Second Line West
Through much of eastern Ontario, Highway401 is a rural freeway with a grass median.
From east of Highway35 and Highway115 to Cobourg, Highway401 passes through a mix of agricultural land and forests, maintaining a straight course.[53] Highway 401 passes through the north end of the towns of Port Hope and Cobourg with two interchanges each. Just east of Cobourg, the highway narrows to four lanes and the terrain becomes undulating, with the highway routed around hills and through valleys along the shores of Lake Ontario.[54] At Trenton, the highway crosses the Trent Canal and returns to an agricultural setting. It then crosses the Moira River as it goes through Belleville before heading eastward to Kingston.[13] The Kingston portion of the highway, originally named the Kingston-Bypass, was one of the first sections of the highway to be completed;[2] it is now mostly three lanes each way.[55]
East of Kingston, the highway continues through a predominantly agricultural area alongside the St. Lawrence River to Gananoque, where it splits with the Thousand Islands Parkway,[56] one of the original sections of the highway designated in 1952.[57] The highway runs parallel to the parkway several kilometres inland from the river. The Canadian Shield, an ancient geological formation, appears through this heavily forested section of the highway. Highway401 rejoins the Thousand Islands Parkway immediately southwest of Brockville, now heading northeast.[58]
The remainder of the highway runs parallel to the former Highway2 along the shore of the St. Lawrence River within the St. Lawrence Valley. Northeast of Brockville is the interchange with Highway416, which heads north to Ottawa.[59] At the Ontario–Quebec border, Highway401 becomes Autoroute20 and continues to Montreal.[60]
Traffic volume
The MTO publishes yearly traffic volume data for provincial highways, expressed as an average daily vehicle count over the span of a year (AADT).[1] The table below compares the AADT at several locations along Highway401 using data from 1969, 1988, 2008 and 2016.
Average annual daily traffic counts of selected sections of Highway401 over 47 years
Highway401 colour-coded by the year each section opened to traffic
Highway401's history predates its designation by over two decades. As automobile use in southern Ontario grew in the early 20th century, road design and construction advanced significantly. Following frequent erosion of Lake Shore Road, then macadamized,[62] a concrete road known as the Toronto–Hamilton Highway was proposed in January 1914. Construction began on November 8 of that year, following the onset of World War I.[63][64] The highway was designed to run along the lake shore, instead of Dundas Street to the north, because the numerous hills encountered along Dundas would have increased costs without improving accessibility. Middle Road, a dirt lane named because of its position between the two, was not considered since Lake Shore and Dundas were both overcrowded and in need of serious repairs.[65] The road was formally opened on November 24, 1917,[62][63]5.5m (18ft) wide and nearly 64km (40mi) long. It was the first concrete road in Ontario, as well as one of the longest stretches of concrete road between two cities in the world.[66]
Over the next decade, vehicle usage increased substantially, and by 1920, Lakeshore Road was again congested, particularly during weekends.[67] In response, the Department of Highways examined improving another road between Toronto and Hamilton. The road was to be more than twice the width of Lakeshore Road at 12m (39ft) and would carry two lanes of traffic in either direction.[68] Construction on what was then known as the Queen Street Extension west of Toronto began in early 1931.[69]
Before the highway could be completed, Thomas McQuesten was appointed the new minister of the Department of Highways, with Robert Melville Smith as deputy minister, following the 1934 provincial elections.[10] Smith, inspired by the German autobahns—new "dual-lane divided highways"—modified the design for Ontario roads,[70] and McQuesten ordered the Middle Road be converted into this new form of highway.[71][72][73] A 40m (130ft)right-of-way was purchased along the Middle Road and construction began to convert the existing sections to a divided highway. Work also began on Canada's first interchange at Highway10.[68]
Beginning in 1935, McQuesten applied the concept of a dual-highway to several projects along Highway2, including along Kingston Road in Scarborough Township.[10][74] When widening in Scarborough reached the Highland Creek ravine in 1936, the Department of Highways began construction on a new bridge over the large valley, bypassing the former alignment around West Hill.[75] From here the highway was constructed on a new alignment to Oshawa, avoiding construction on the congested Highway2.[9] As grading and bridge construction neared completion on the new highway between West Hill and Oshawa in September 1939, World War II broke out and gradually tax revenues were re-allocated from highway construction to the war effort.[10] At the same time, between September 6 and 8, 1939, the Ontario Good Roads Association Conference was held at Bigwin Inn, near Huntsville,[76] drawing highway engineers from across North America to discuss the new concept of "Dual Highways." On the first day of the convention, McQuesten announced his vision of the freeway: an uninterrupted drive through the scenic regions of Ontario, discouraging local business and local traffic from accessing the highway except at infrequent controlled-access points.[77] It was announced in the days thereafter this concept would be applied to a new "trans-provincial expressway", running from Windsor to the Ontario–Quebec border.[78]
The former Highway2A near Highland Creek, aside from a resurfaced pavement, has not been altered since it opened in 1947.
Highway engineers evaluated factors such as grading, curve radius, and the narrow median used along the Middle Road—which was inaugurated on August 23, 1940 as the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW)[79]—and began to plan the course of a new dual highway mostly parallel to Highway2, with precedence given to areas most hampered by congestion. Unlike the QEW, this highway would not be built along an existing road, but rather on a new right-of-way, avoiding the need to provide access to properties.[10][77] Along with immense improvements to machinery and construction techniques over its six-year course, the war provided planners an opportunity to conduct a survey of 375,000drivers, asking them about their preferred route to travel to their destination. Using this information, a course was plotted from Windsor to Quebec, bypassing all towns along the way.[9][80]
Highway2S (S for Scenic) was the first completed section of new roadway. Built to connect with the Thousand Islands Bridge at Ivy Lea and opened as a gravel road in late 1941 or early 1942,[81] the road followed the shore of the Saint Lawrence River and connected with the western end of the twinned Highway2 near Brockville.[16] In addition, the highway between Highland Creek and Oshawa was opened as a gravel-surfaced road in May 1942.[82]
Following the war, construction resumed on roadways throughout Ontario. The expressway between Highland Creek and Oshawa was completed in December 1947,[9] while other sections languished. The Toronto–Barrie Highway was the primary focus of the Department of Highways at the time, and the onset of the Korean War in 1950 stalled construction again. Despite the delays, highway minister George Doucett officially announced the plans for construction of the new trans-provincial expressway that year, with the Toronto to Oshawa expressway serving as a model for the design.[10] Work on the most important link, the Toronto Bypass, began in 1951,[10] but it would not open with that name.
The Highway 400 interchange in 1953. Today, the former cloverleaf has been replaced with a multilevel interchange.
Assumption
In July 1952 (possibly July 1, the same day Highway400 was numbered),[lower-alpha 1][57] the Highland Creek to Oshawa expressway and Highway2S were designated Controlled-Access Highway No401,[9] a move scorned by one critic because of the lack of thought given to the numbered name.[83] Construction was completed for several sections of the Toronto Bypass: between Highway400 and Dufferin Street in August, west to Weston Road in September, east to Bathurst Street in October and finally to Yonge Street in December.[2] Extensions east and west began in 1953; the eastern extension to Bayview Avenue opened in April 1955,[2] but the western extension was delayed by the damage caused by Hurricane Hazel on October 15, 1954, which nearly destroyed the new bridge over the Humber River. The reconstruction would take until July 8, 1955,[84] and the highway was opened between Weston and Highway27 in September 1955.[2]
Within years after opening, the four-lane Toronto Bypass was congested, prompting the Department of Highways to widen this section to 12lanes beginning in 1963.
The entire bypass, including the widening of Highway27 into an expressway south of Highway401,[9][85] was completed in August 1956.[2][9] Upon its opening, the bypass was described by one reporter as "a motorist's dream" providing "some of the most soothing scenery in the Metropolitan area". The reporter continued, with regard to the eastern section through Scarborough, that it "winds smoothly through pastures across streams and rivers, and beside green thickets. It seems a long way from the big city."[9] By 1959 however, the bypass was a lineup of cars, as 85,000drivers crowded the roadway, designed to handle a maximum of 48,000vehicles, on a daily basis.[9] Motorists found the new road to be a convenient way of travelling across Toronto; this convenience helped influence the suburban shift in the city and continues to be a driving force of urban sprawl today.[57]
Meanwhile, beyond Toronto, the highway was being built in a patchwork fashion, focusing on congested areas first.[10] Construction west from Highway27 began in late 1954,[86] as did the Kingston Bypass in Eastern Ontario.[87] Work began to connect the latter with the Scenic Highway in 1955.[86] After the 1954 New York State Thruway opened from Buffalo to New York City,[88] Michigan officials encouraged Ontario to bypass Highway 3 as the most direct path from Detroit to Buffalo.[89] By 1956, construction had begun on a segment between Highway4 in London and Highway2 in Woodstock, as well as on the section between Windsor and Tilbury.[90]
A plaque near Brockville commemorates the official completion of the highway.
By the end of 1960, the Toronto section of the highway was extended both eastwards and westwards: first east from Newcastle to Port Hope on June 30; then later west from Highway25 in Milton to Highway8 south of Kitchener on November 17.[2] By mid-1961, the section between Brighton and Marysville had opened.[92] The gap to the east, from Highway28 in Port Hope to Highway30 in Brighton was opened on July 20 of that year.[93]
The gap between Woodstock and Kitchener was completed on November 9, 1961, while the gap between Tilbury and London was completed two lanes at a time; the westbound lanes on October 22, 1963, the eastbound on July 20, 1965.[2] The gap between Marysville and Kingston was opened by 1962.[92] The final sections, from west of Cornwall to Lancaster, were opened between 1962 and 1964;[92][94] two lanes opened to Lancaster on September 11, 1962, but the other two were not completed until July 31, 1964. The last segment, to the Ontario–Quebec border, was opened on November 10, 1964.[2] Finally, on October 11, 1968, the Thousand Islands Bypass opened.[9] This final piece was commemorated with a plaque to signify the completion of Highway401.[10]
Expansion
The widening of Highway 401 from four to twelve lanes in Toronto took nine years and was accomplished with at least four lanes open at all times. Shown here is the Highway 401 / Don Valley Parkway / Highway 404 interchange (which replaced an earlier one with Woodbine Avenue) under construction in 1965.
In Toronto, engineers and surveyors were examining the four-lane bypass, while planners set about designing a way to handle the commuter highway. In 1963, transportation minister Charles MacNaughton announced the widening of Highway401 in Toronto from four to a minimum of 12lanes between Islington Avenue and Markham Road. The design was taken from the Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago, which was widened into a similar configuration around the same time.[9] Construction began immediately. While the plan initially called for construction to end in 1967, it continued for nearly a decade. At least four lanes were always open during the large reconstruction project, which included complex new interchanges at Highway27, Highway400, the planned Spadina Expressway and the Don Valley Parkway. The system was completed in 1972, along with the Highway27 (renamed Highway427) bypass between the QEW and Pearson Airport. Most of the interchanges in Toronto were reconstructed as partial cloverleafs and a continuous lighting system was installed.[10]
On January 11, 1965, at the dinner celebration of Sir John A. Macdonald's 150th birthday, the Premier of Ontario John Robarts designated Highway401 the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway to honour Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier, two of Canada's Fathers of Confederation.[95][96] Unlike other names later applied to the highway, the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway designation covers the entire length of Highway401. Signs designating the freeway and shields with the letters 'M-C' were installed, but these had been removed by 1997.[97] In 2003, 38years after Robarts' naming of the highway, a Member of Provincial Parliament attempted to get the Macdonald-Cartier Freeway highway name enshrined into law; the bill only passed first reading and was not enacted.[98]
In the 1970s, Highway401 was widened to six lanes in Durham. Between 1977 and 1982, Highway401 was widened from four to six lanes between Hurontario Street (Highway10) to Highway25, with the Jersey median barrier making its debut in Ontario in that segment.[10]
The Highway 401-403-410 interchange looking east in 1987. At the time the Highway 401 collector and express lanes merged prior to crossing Tomken Road. At the time Highway 410 was only a Super two highway which connected to Highway 401 east of the interchange.
The expanded interchange looking north in 2013, showing the flyover ramps between Highway 401 and Highway 410 with the Highway 401 express lanes underneath them.
The 1980s saw more sections widened. Most significant was the new collector-express system between Highway403/ 410 and Highway427, including a new set of flyover ramps from the express lanes to Highway403 which opened in 1984, while a basketweave transfer between the eastbound collector and express lanes near Pearson Airport was completed in mid-1985.[99] After the Kennedy Road overpass was replaced, cast-in-place concrete flyover ramps were constructed from 1988 to late 1990 to link up Highway401 and Highway410, notably the 11-span flyover ramp from Highway401 eastbound to Highway410 northbound which remains the longest in the Greater Toronto Area, while the Highway410 southbound to Highway401 eastbound flyover replaced a loop ramp. In the fall of 1991, alongside the widening of Highway 410 into a full freeway, construction began on the connecting ramps between Highway 403 and Highway 410, which pass under the existing bridge structures carrying Highway401 (which would soon be designated as the collector lanes), while new overpasses were constructed for the Highway401 express lanes which were extended from east of Tomken Road to just east of Kennedy Road.[100][101]
Highway401 at Meadowvale Road in 1989, before being widened to a 14-lane collector-express system
Plans were made to extend the eastern system from Neilson Road to Brock Road in Pickering in the late 1980s,[102] but took over a decade to reach fruition by 1997.[103][104][105] This was followed shortly thereafter by the widening of the highway through Ajax and a new interchange at Pickering Beach Road (renamed Salem Road) and Stevenson Road.[106]
The 1990s also saw the first step in widening the highway from Toronto to London, by replacing the grass median with the addition of a third traffic lane per direction separated by a tall-wall concrete median barrier. The segment from London to Woodstock received this upgrade first, with the expansion ending near the terminus of Highway403's newly constructed western segment.[107] A project in the mid-1990s brought the highway up to a minimum of six lanes between Highway8 in Kitchener and Highway35 / 115 in Newcastle.[108] Other projects prepared sections for eventual widening.[109]
In its 2007 plan for southern Ontario, the MTO announced long-term plans to create high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes from Mississauga Road west to Milton;[110] by 2011 these plans had been expanded in scope to as far west as Hespeler Road in Cambridge.[111]
Hwy. 401 widening work in Mississauga looking east from the Mississauga Road overpass in 2020
In the late 1990s, several prerequisite projects were undertaken for the future widening of Highway401 throughout Mississauga, including a new underpass structure to accommodate Derry Road which was widened from two to six lanes (1996–97), the addition of an interchange with the Mavis Road extension in 1999 whose overpass was designed to be lengthened with two outer spans,[112] and replacing the Mississauga Road overpass which began on February 15, 2002 [113] (in a cost-sharing agreement between the province and Peel Region) and completed in 2003,[10] although that section of the freeway would retain its six-lane cross section for the next decade. More recent work included the replacement of the McLaughlin Road overpass in 2008.[114][115] Starting in 2009, Highway401's collector-express lanes in Mississauga have been extended westward beyond its initial terminus at Highway410.[112][114] The widening of this 7km segment to the Credit River necessitated the replacement of several existing overpasses, including those of Hurontario Street (2013) and Second Line West (2016), with the Second Line West crossing rebuilt as a pedestrian/cyclist bridge since most vehicular traffic was already rerouted to the Mavis Road extension.[116][117] Tying into this extension of Highway401's collector-express system, the missing ramps from Highway 401 eastbound to Highway 403 westbound and the opposite movement were completed in 2018[112] which also provided direct access to Cawthra Road, making the Highway401-403-410 junction a full four-way interchange.[118] The first phase of this expansion to west of Hurontario Street, a distance of 2.8km (1.7mi), opened in 2013,[119] while the second phase to the Credit River was completed in 2020.[120]
A successful construction consortium was announced in 2019 for expanding the route from the Credit River to Regional Road25 in Milton to a minimum of 10lanes, including an HOV lane. This project included extending the existing 12-lane collector–express system from the Credit River to just east of Winston Churchill Boulevard, while another 12-lane collector–express system was built from just west of the Highway407 interchange to just east of the James Snow Parkway, as the Highway 407 overpass was not constructed wide enough to accommodate a continuous collector–express system underneath.[121]
Sections of the new expansion were opened overnight throughout the second half of 2022. On August13 and 14, 2022, the westbound express lanes opened between Highway407 and James Snow Parkway. The remainder of the westbound lanes, between the Credit River and Winston Churchill Boulevard, were opened several months later on November13 and 14. The eastbound express lanes between James Snow Parkway and Winston Churchill Boulevard were opened a week later on November18 and 19, and from Winston Churchill Boulevard to the Credit River on November29 and 30. The HOV lanes in both directions were opened on December9, 2022 to complete the project.[122][123] However, final layers of paving, culvert works, and completion of carpool lots are still underway as of April 2023. [124]
Advantage I-75
Between June 1990 and 1998, Highway401 and Interstate 75 were used for a pilot project named Advantage I-75 to test the reliability and versatility of an automated tracking system for transport trucks. Termed "MACS" (Mainline Automated Clearance System), it allows a truck to travel from Florida to Ontario without a second inspection.[125] MACS was initially tested at two truck inspection stations in Kentucky, with transponders installed in 220trucks. Exact time, date, location, weight and axle data were logged as a truck approached an equipped station.[126] Following initial tests, MACS was deployed at every inspection station along I-75 from Miami to Detroit, and along Highway401 from Windsor to Belleville in 1994.[125] The project demonstrated the effectiveness of electronic systems in enforcing freight restrictions without delaying vehicles, while alleviating security fears such systems could be compromised. The concept has since been applied to many parts of Canada, including Highway407's electronic tolling system.[127]
"Carnage Alley"
The 87-vehicle pile up on September 3, 1999
The section of Highway401 between Windsor and London has often been referred to as Carnage Alley, in reference to the numerous crashes that have occurred throughout its history. The term became more commonplace following several deadly pileups during the 1990s.[10] The narrow and open grass median was an ineffective obstacle in preventing cross-median collisions. The soft shoulders consisted of gravel, with sharp slopes which were blamed for facilitating vehicle rollovers.[128] The nature of that section of highway, described as a mainly straight road with a featureless agricultural landscape, was said to make drivers feel less involved and lose focus on the road. In winter, the area between Woodstock and Chatham is also subject to sudden snow squalls from lake-effect snow.[129] Several collisions have resulted from motorists deviating from their lane and losing control of their vehicles.[128][130]
Various other names, including The Killer Highway circulated for a time,[131] but Carnage Alley became predominant following an 87-vehicle pile-up on September 3, 1999 (the start of Labour Day weekend), the worst in Canadian history, that resulted in eight deaths and 45injured individuals.[132]
Only a few days prior, then-Transportation Minister David Turnbull had deemed the highway "pleasant" to drive.[133] On the morning of September 3, the local weather station reported clear conditions due to a malfunction,[132] while a thick layer of fog rolled onto the highway. Dozens of vehicles, including several semi-trailers, quickly crashed into each other shortly after 8a.m., one following another in the dense fog, with collisions in both directions at that segment of Highway 401, although no vehicles crossed the highway's median.[134][135] Immediately following the crash, the MTO installed paved shoulders with rumble strips[136] and funded additional police to patrol the highway, a move criticized as being insufficient.[137]
Beginning in 2004, 46km (29mi) of the highway was widened from four asphalt lanes to six concrete lanes, paved shoulders were added, and a concrete Ontario Tall Wall median was installed,[138] which was the solution the Canadian Automobile Association promoted in 1999.[128] Interchanges were improved and signage was upgraded as part of a five-phase project to improve Highway401 from Highway3 in Windsor to Essex County Road 42 (formerly Highway2) on the western edge of Tilbury.[24] From 2008 to 2010, with joint funding from the provincial and federal governments, the section of Highway401 from Dougall Parkway (former Highway 3B) to Provincial Road (former Highway 98) was widened to six lanes, necessitating the replacement of the Walker Road and Provincial Road underpasses for the freeway's elevated section. As part of that project, the Dougall Parkway split with Highway401 was reconfigured, replacing a one-lane 1950s-era underpass tunnel with a modern high-speed flyover ramp. The old interchange had reduced eastbound Highway401 traffic to one lane as it merged with Dougall Parkway, whereas the new interchange allows three lanes per direction of Highway 401 to pass through.[139]
Canadians line overpasses along the Highway of Heroes to pay their respects to fallen soldiers.
On August 24, 2007, the MTO announced the stretch of Highway401 between Glen Miller Road in Trenton and the intersection of the Don Valley Parkway and Highway404 in Toronto would bear the additional name Highway of Heroes (French: Autoroute des héros), in honour of Canadian soldiers who have died,[140] though Highway401 in its entirety remains designated as the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway.[141] This length of the highway is often travelled by a convoy of vehicles carrying a fallen soldier's body, with his or her family, from CFB Trenton to the coroner's office at the Centre for Forensic Sciences in Toronto. Since 2002, when the first fallen Canadian soldiers were repatriated from Afghanistan, crowds have lined the overpasses to pay their respects as convoys pass.[142]
The origin of the name can be traced to an article in the Toronto Sun on June 23, 2007, by columnist Joe Warmington, in which he interviewed Northumberland photographer Pete Fisher. Cobourg resident Ron Flindall was responsible for organizing the first bridge salutes following the loss of four soldiers on April 18, 2002.[143][144]
Warmington described the gathering of crowds on overpasses to welcome fallen soldiers as a "highway of heroes phenomena".[145] This led a Cramahe Township volunteer firefighter to contact Fisher on July 10 about starting a petition, leading Fisher to publish an article which was posted to the Northumberland Today website.[146] The online article eventually caught the attention of London resident Jay Forbes. Forbes began a petition, which received over 20,000signatures[140] before being brought to the Minister of Transportation on August 22.[147] Following the announcement on August 24, the provincial government and MTO set out to design new signs. The signs were erected and unveiled on September 7,[141] and include a smaller reassurance marker (shield), as well as a larger billboard version.[148]
On September 27, 2013, the Highway of Heroes designation was extended west to Keele Street in Toronto, to coincide with the move of the coroner's office to the new Forensic Services and Coroner's Complex located at Highway 401 and Keele Street.
Highway improvements and safety concerns
London and Kitchener
Highway401 was widened in 2008 between Highway402 and Wellington Road in London. Additional widening west of Highway 402 is planned.
Between 2006 and 2008, Highway401 was widened from four to six lanes between Highway402 and Wellington Road in London. This included reconfiguring the Wellington Road interchange from a cloverleaf to a Parclo A4 while replacing the original 1956 overpass with a longer and wider structure.[24]
In November 2010, the widening of Highway401 from four to six lanes between Woodstock and Kitchener was completed after many years of planning and construction.[149] The project included the installation of a tall-wall median barrier, straightening curves and adding additional interchanges on the freeway, allowing it to be easily vacated in an emergency event.[150]
Greater Toronto Area
Beginning in 1998, several projects were initiated on Highway401 within Toronto. The freeway's pavement through the city was resurfaced. The most significant construction work was widening the route from six to eight lanes though the Highway427 interchange in 2005, which necessitated the replacement of the Highway 27 underpass, although the rest of the junction's flyovers could accommodate the expansion.[6] Some projects have been completed during overnight construction projects, including the widening and rehabilitation of the Hogg's Hollow bridge,[151] the replacement of the original gantries throughout the collector-express system,[152] and rehabilitating the flyover ramps of the Highway401 / 400 interchange.[153][154]
On August 10, 2008, following a series of explosions at a propane facility in Toronto, Highway401 was closed between Highway400 and Highway404 as a precautionary measure, the largest closure of the highway in its history.[155] The highway remained closed until 8p.m., though several exits near the blast remained closed thereafter.[156][157]
In Oshawa, exit416 (Park Road) was replaced by a new interchange at exit415 (Stevenson Road). The contract, which began September 7, 2005, included the interchange and the resurfacing of 23.4km (14.5mi) of the highway between Oshawa and Highway 35/ Highway 115.[158] The westbound ramps were opened in mid-September 2007[159] and the eastbound ramps in mid-2009. The resurfacing was completed mid-2010.[158]
In 2013, as a prerequisite to construction of the West Durham Link which was eventually numbered as Highway412, the section of Highway401 near the Lake Ridge Road overpass was shifted northward on a new alignment away from the parallel railway line to allow sufficient right-of-way for the interchange to the new route.[160][161] The interchange to Highway412 opened on June20, 2016.[162]
The Highway401 extension in Windsor, opened in 2015, is a six-lane below-grade roadway with tunnels and greenspace. It will connect to the planned Gordie Howe International Bridge.
In 2004, a joint announcement by the federal government of the United States and Government of Canada confirmed a new border crossing would be constructed between Detroit and Windsor. The Detroit River International Crossing (DRIC) was formed as a bi-national committee to manage the project.[163] The MTO took advantage of this opportunity to extend Highway401 to the Canada–US border and began an environmental impact assessment on the entire project in late 2005.[163] The City of Windsor also hired New York traffic consultant Sam Schwartz to design a parkway to the border. Schwartz's proposal would eventually inspire the DRIC's own design, but his route was not chosen, with the DRIC opting instead to take a northern route.[164] On February8, 2008, the MTO announced it had begun purchasing property south of the E.C. Row Expressway, upsetting many area residents who had purchased properties in the years prior.[165][166]
On March3, 2008, the Michigan Department of Transportation and the MTO (in partnership with Transport Canada, the Federal Highway Administration of the United States and the Detroit River International Crossing group) completed a joint assessment on the soils along the Detroit River and determined they could indeed support the weight of a new bridge; the stability of the underlying soil and clay and the impact of the nearby Windsor Salt Mine had caused concern for all parties involved in the project.[167]
Despite protest from area residents,[168] as well as a dismissed lawsuit from Ambassador Bridge owner Matty Moroun,[169][170] it was announced on May1, 2008, that a preferred route had been selected and the new route would be named the Windsor–Essex Parkway.[171] The new parkway is below-grade and has six through-lanes. It follows (but does not replace) Talbot Road and Huron Church Road from a new interchange at the former end of Highway401 to the E.C. Row Expressway, where it runs concurrently westward for 2km (1.2mi). From there, it turns northwest and follows a new alignment to the border.[172] Internally, the new parkway was numbered Highway7901.[1] Initial construction of a noise barrier from North Talbot Road to Howard Avenue began in March 2010; full construction began on August19, 2011.[173]
On November28, 2012, the Ministry of Transportation announced a Federal Order in Council was passed to change the name of the parkway to the "Rt. Hon. Herb Gray Parkway", in honour of the Right HonourableHerb Gray, a Member of Parliament from Windsor.[174] In early 2015, it was announced the parkway would open to traffic between Highway3 and Labelle Street (near the E.C. Row Expressway) in the spring;[175] an 8-kilometre (5mi) section was opened to traffic on June28, extending Highway401 as far west as the E.C. Row Expressway. It was the first new segment of the highway to be opened since the Thousand Islands Parkway bypass in 1968.[176] The stretch to Ojibway Parkway was opened on November21,[177] completing the parkway as far as the planned bridge approach and border plaza.[178] Construction on projects related to the Gordie Howe International Bridge began in 2015 with an initial completion date in 2019–20.[179] The "Bridging North America" consortium was selected to build the bridge in July 2018, with construction beginning immediately.[180] The Gordie Howe International Bridge is expected to be completed by the end of 2024.[15]
Major projects 2006 - 2024
Southwestern Ontario
Highway 401 in the Greenbelt, at the interchange with Guelph Line. The stretch of Highway 401 between Highway 8 and Highway 407 ETR is slated to be widened from six to ten lanes, including two HOV lanes.
In Southwestern Ontario, several improvements are under way to provide six lanes on Highway 401 from Windsor to Toronto,[181] in response to the 1999 Highway 401 crash in Carnage Alley.[138][182] West of Essex County Road 42 on the west of Tilbury, the highway has been widened to six lanes with a concrete divider in anticipation of the Rt. Hon. Herb Gray Parkway.[171][183]
Within the London area, traffic volumes are expected to increase considerably, leading to poor highway conditions. The province put in place an extensive plan to widen and reconstruct the London corridor between 2006 and 2021.[184] This included building a new interchange with Wonderland Road which opened in November 2015 to help improve access to Highway401 westbound from the city's southwest end and involved replacing the Westminster Drive overpass to allow the highway to be widened.[185] A reconstruction of the outdated cloverleaf interchange at Colonel Talbot Road[186] and widening Highway401 from four to six lanes between Highway4 and Highway402 is also proposed.[187][188][189] The MTO is also planning on widening Highway401 from six to eight lanes through part of the London corridor.[190][191]
In the Kitchener/Cambridge area, the Y-junction between Highway401 and Highway8 Expressway is to be expanded to a full all-directional interchange, with flyover ramps linking eastbound Highway401 to Highway 8 towards Kitchener and Highway8 traffic towards Toronto to westbound Highway401 to bypass the existing connection using King Street, giving Highway401 direct freeway access to the Conestoga Parkway.[29][30] The widening of Highway401 from six to twelve lanes from Highway8 (King Street) to Highway/Regional Road24 (Hespeler Road) commenced on June 8, 2015 and concluded in summer 2019.[28][29][30] The second phase of expansion scheduled for 2019-21 saw Highway401 widened from six to ten lanes between Highway/Regional Road 24 and Townline Road.[192][193][28] At the interchange with Highway 24 (Hespeler Road), the span carrying northbound traffic which opened in 1989 was torn down on May 1, 2021, with both directions of Highway 24 traffic temporarily relocated to the overpass originally built in 1960 and designated for southbound drivers since 1989, as a new overpass was constructed to accommodate Highway401's expanded cross-section.[194][195]
Greater Toronto Area
Expansion in Durham includes widening the highway to 12lanes, and extending the collector-express system from its end at Brock Road in Pickering to Lake Ridge Road in Whitby.[196] A Transportation Environmental Study Report was completed on widening highway 401, extending the collector-express system easterly through to the Highway 412 interchange in Whitby, then ten lanes easterly to Liberty Street in the Municipality of Clarington. The assessment was completed in March 2015.[197] From Liberty Street in Clarington to Highway 35/115, Highway 401 was widened from six to eight lanes.
To support this widening, all of the original overpasses dating back in the 1940s and 1950s built through Whitby and Oshawa were replaced with new overpasses as part of modern highway safety standards and to allow for a future highway widening.[198]
Eastern Ontario
East of Durham, the MTO widened parts of Highway401 to six lanes.[181] Two bridges have been widened in advance of an eventual widening to six lanes of the highway including the bridges over the Trent River in Trenton,[199] as well as the Salmon River bridge between Belleville and Napanee.[200] By 2020, the highway was widened to six lanes for 9km (5.6mi) through Kingston between exits 611 and 623.[201] Construction began in 2014 to expand the highway to six lanes approximately five kilometres (3.1mi) east of exit 474 in Cobourg.[202]
Highway401 features 19 ONroute service centres operated under contract from the Ministry of Transportation. They provide a place to park, rest, eat and refuel 24hours a day.[9] Service centres along Highway 401 were first announced in 1961 following public outcry over the lack of rest stops. The centres were originally leased to and operated by several major gasoline distributors; however, those companies chose not to renew their leases as the terms ended.[citation needed]
In response, the MTO put the operation of the full network of service centres out for tender, resulting in a 50-year lease agreement in 2010 with Host Kilmer Service Centres, a joint venture between hospitality company HMSHost (a subsidiary of Autogrill) and investment company Kilmer van Nostrand.[203]
Seventeen of the centres along Highway401 have been reconstructed entirely. Two centres rebuilt in the late 1990s, specifically Newcastle and Ingersoll, were not redeveloped at that time. Work on rebuilding 15 of the 17service centres began in late 2009 or early 2010. The new service centres, opened in phases beginning in July 2010, feature a Canadian Tire gas station, an HMSHost-operated convenience store known as "The Market", as well as fast food brands such as Tim Hortons, A&W, Pizza Pizza, Extreme Pita, KFC, Taco Bell, Big Smoke Burger and Burger King.[204]
Opened in 1991 as the Mississauga Info Centre serving only passenger vehicle traffic; included tourism info terminals and a business centre. Was leased to Shell. Permanently closed as of September 30, 2006 with building demolished in December 2010. Site redeveloped as the OPP Mississauga Detachment.[212]
Closed for reconstruction March 31, 2010;[213] reopened June 2011[citation needed]
Odessa
Eastbound
599, 611
Open during 2010–11 reconstruction (while a new structure was built directly west of a now-demolished original facility on same property). New facility opened June 2011[citation needed]
Toll highway; signed as exits330A (west) and 330B (east) eastbound; no access from westbound Highway407 to eastbound Highway401 or westbound Highway401 to eastbound Highway407
Proposed freeway bypass of western Greater Toronto to connect with Highway 400 in Vaughan; connection to be incorporated into the Highway 407 interchange complex[217]
Although signed as both the exit for Mississauga Road and Erin Mills Parkway, Erin Mills Parkway merges with Mississauga Road 1.7km (1.1mi) to the south and does not officially reach Highway401
Former partial interchange; full access to/from Highways 403 and 410 after new ramps from eastbound Highway 401 to westbound (south) Highway 403 and from eastbound (north) 403 to westbound 401 were opened in 2018
Exit348 (eastbound exit and westbound entrance), exit350 (eastbound exit and westbound entrance), exit351 (westbound exit and eastbound entrance) and exit352 (westbound exit and eastbound entrance)
Westbound exit and eastbound entrance (access only from northbound Bathurst Street); westbound entrance and eastbound exit ramps removed; westbound exits to Wilson Avenue, about 200m west of Bathurst Street
Formerly Woodbine Avenue prior to its reconstruction into the DVP and Highway 404;[218] from eastbound Highway401, access to Sheppard Avenue via northbound Highway404 from 401 collector lanes only
Former tolled highway; construction begun in 2013, completed June 20, 2016
409.6
254.5
410
Regional Road 46 (Brock Street)
Formerly Highway12; Regional Highway 12 begins at Regional Road 28 (Rossland Road) to the north of the interchange, and it runs northward to just south of Highway 407 at the southern end of Highway 12
Heavy Rescue: 401—a documentary/reality series on Discovery Channel in Canada and The Weather Channel in the United States highlighting the operations of heavy rescue and recovery towing businesses along the highway and nearby roads.
↑ The Department of Highways Fiscal Report for the year ending March 31, 1952, claims "Controlled Access Highways nos. 400 and 401 were signed". However, all other sources claim July.
1 2 Maier, Hanna (October 9, 2007). "Chapter2". Long-Life Concrete Pavements in Europe and Canada (Report). Federal Highway Administration. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010. Retrieved May 1, 2010. The key high-volume highways in Ontario are the 400-series highways in the southern part of the province. The most important of these is the 401, the busiest highway in North America, with average annual daily traffic (AADT) of more than 425,000vehicles in 2004 and daily traffic sometimes exceeding 500,000vehicles.
1 2 3 Canadian NewsWire (August 6, 2002). Ontario Government Investing $401 Million to Upgrade Highway401 (Report). Ministry of Transportation of Ontario. Highway401 is one of the busiest highways in the world and represents a vital link in Ontario's transportation infrastructure, carrying more than 400,000vehicles per day through Toronto.
1 2 3 4 5 Thün, Geoffrey; Velikov, Kathy. "The Post-Carbon Highway". Alphabet City. Archived from the original on July 5, 2010. Retrieved January 2, 2012. It is North America's busiest highway, and one of the busiest in the world. The section of Highway401 that cuts across the northern part of Toronto has been expanded to eighteen lanes, and typically carries 420,000vehicles a day, rising to 500,000 at peak times, as compared to 380,000 on the I-405 in Los Angeles or 350,000 on the I-75 in Atlanta (Gray).
1 2 3 Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (March 2007). Canada and Ontario Making Improvements to Highway 401 in Essex County (Report). Canadian News Wire.
↑ Ministry of Transportation (2003), section R23–24.
1 2 3 Record staff (September 3, 2014). "Cambridge Committee Grants Weekend Noise Exemption for Hwy. 401 Work". Waterloo Region Record. Kitchener. Archived from the original on November 12, 2014. Retrieved November 12, 2014. During the next four years, construction crews will widen Highway 401 from six to 10 lanes and rebuild four overpasses that stretch across the highway.
↑ Ministry of Transportation of Ontario. "About COMPASS: Systems in Operation". Toronto (Highway 401) COMPASS System. Government of Ontario. Archived from the original on February 14, 2010. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
↑ Ministry of Transportation of Ontario. "Interactive Map". Traffic Cameras. Government of Ontario. Archived from the original on June 7, 2011. Retrieved March 1, 2010.
↑ M.M Dillon Limited (July 1983). "Executive Summary". Don Valley Corridor Transportation Study (Report). Metropolitan Toronto Technical Transportation Planning Committee. p.iii. nearly 52% of the vehicles entering the [study] corridor arrived via Highway401.
↑ Shragge p. 55. "...the Toronto-to-Hamilton highway which, when completed in 1917, was both Ontario's first concrete highway and one of the longest such inter-city stretches in the world."
↑ "Increased Volume of Traffic". County And Suburbs. Toronto World. Vol.40, no.14472. June 26, 1920. p.7. Retrieved February 12, 2010.
↑ "Hopes to Improve Roads". The Gazette. Vol.165, no.42. Montreal. February 18, 1936. p.14. Retrieved February 9, 2010.
↑ English, Bob (March 16, 2006). "Remember That 'Little Four-lane Freeway?'". Globe And Mail. Toronto. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved November 8, 2017. ...the freeway concept was promoted by Hamiltonian Thomas B. McQuesten, then the highway minister. The Queen Elizabeth Way was already under construction, but McQuesten changed it into a dual-lane divided highway, based on Germany's new autobahns.
↑ "Bypassing Approved". The Gazette. Vol.167, no.214. Montreal. September 7, 1938. p.19. Retrieved March 16, 2010.
↑ Annual Report (Report). Department of Highways. April 1942. p.9.
↑ Staff (May 6, 1942). "To Open Highway Soon". The Toronto Star. p.15.
↑ Woodsworth, Charles J. (October 17, 1952). "Tasteless Names For Ontario Roads". The Evening Citizen. Vol.110, no.93. Ottawa: Southam Newspapers. p.40. Retrieved February 9, 2010.
↑ "Freeway Alters Life in Ontario". Hemisphere Business Review. New York Times. January 17, 1964. p.45. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved April 2, 2010.
↑ "401 May Be Renamed Macdonald-Cartier". News. The Globe and Mail. Vol.121, no.35, 907. Toronto. January 9, 1965. p.1. Premier John Robarts is expected to announce Monday at the 150th birthday dinner for Sir John A. Macdonald that Highway401 will be renamed the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway. The naming will be in honour of Canada's first prime minister and George-Étienne Cartier, the Quebec leader in confederation.
↑ "Chronology". Annual Report (Report). Department of Highways. March 31, 1966. p.324.
↑ "Heritage Issue Drives Highway Sign Debate". The Record. Kitchener. December 23, 1997. p.B5.
↑ Annual Report 1983–1984 (Report). Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications. March 31, 1984. Archived from the original on April 24, 2016. Retrieved June 24, 2010.
↑ Mitchell, Bob (December 5, 1991). "Work Starts on 403-410 Link". Mississauga. The Toronto Star. p.MA2.
↑ Mitchell, Bob (October 31, 1992). "403-410 Highway Link Ready, Seen As 'Boon' To Motorists". News. The Toronto Star. p.A24.
↑ Josey, Stan (February 10, 1987). "12 Lanes to Solve Tie-ups on 401". Neighbors. The Toronto Star. p.E1. Archived from the original on October 26, 2012. Retrieved April 10, 2010.
A-20 towards Montreal, QC 
