Photochemistry

Last updated
Photochemical immersion well reactor (50 mL) with a mercury-vapor lamp. Photochemical immersion well reactor 50 mL.jpg
Photochemical immersion well reactor (50 mL) with a mercury-vapor lamp.

Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. Generally, this term is used to describe a chemical reaction caused by absorption of ultraviolet (wavelength from 100 to 400  nm), visible light (400–750 nm) or infrared radiation (750–2500 nm). [1]

Contents

In nature, photochemistry is of immense importance as it is the basis of photosynthesis, vision, and the formation of vitamin D with sunlight. [2] Photochemical reactions proceed differently than temperature-driven reactions. Photochemical paths access high energy intermediates that cannot be generated thermally, thereby overcoming large activation barriers in a short period of time, and allowing reactions otherwise inaccessible by thermal processes. Photochemistry can also be destructive, as illustrated by the photodegradation of plastics.

Concept

Grotthuss–Draper law and Stark-Einstein law

Photoexcitation is the first step in a photochemical process where the reactant is elevated to a state of higher energy, an excited state. The first law of photochemistry, known as the Grotthuss–Draper law (for chemists Theodor Grotthuss and John W. Draper), states that light must be absorbed by a chemical substance in order for a photochemical reaction to take place. According to the second law of photochemistry, known as the Stark-Einstein law (for physicists Johannes Stark and Albert Einstein), for each photon of light absorbed by a chemical system, no more than one molecule is activated for a photochemical reaction, as defined by the quantum yield. [3] [4]

Fluorescence and phosphorescence

When a molecule or atom in the ground state (S0) absorbs light, one electron is excited to a higher orbital level. This electron maintains its spin according to the spin selection rule; other transitions would violate the law of conservation of angular momentum. The excitation to a higher singlet state can be from HOMO to LUMO or to a higher orbital, so that singlet excitation states S1, S2, S3… at different energies are possible.

Kasha's rule stipulates that higher singlet states would quickly relax by radiationless decay or internal conversion (IC) to S1. Thus, S1 is usually, but not always, the only relevant singlet excited state. This excited state S1 can further relax to S0 by IC, but also by an allowed radiative transition from S1 to S0 that emits a photon; this process is called fluorescence.

Jablonski diagram. Radiative paths are represented by straight arrows and non-radiative paths by curly lines. JablonskiWithVibration.png
Jablonski diagram. Radiative paths are represented by straight arrows and non-radiative paths by curly lines.

Alternatively, it is possible for the excited state S1 to undergo spin inversion and to generate a triplet excited state T1 having two unpaired electrons with the same spin. This violation of the spin selection rule is possible by intersystem crossing (ISC) of the vibrational and electronic levels of S1 and T1. According to Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity, this T1 state would be somewhat more stable than S1.

This triplet state can relax to the ground state S0 by radiationless IC or by a radiation pathway called phosphorescence. This process implies a change of electronic spin, which is forbidden by spin selection rules, making phosphorescence (from T1 to S0) much slower than fluorescence (from S1 to S0). Thus, triplet states generally have longer lifetimes than singlet states. These transitions are usually summarized in a state energy diagram or Jablonski diagram, the paradigm of molecular photochemistry.

These excited species, either S1 or T1, have a half empty low-energy orbital, and are consequently more oxidizing than the ground state. But at the same time, they have an electron in a high energy orbital, and are thus more reducing. In general, excited species are prone to participate in electron transfer processes. [5]

Experimental set-up

Photochemical immersion well reactor (750 mL) with a mercury-vapor lamp Photochemical immersion well reactor 750 mL.JPG
Photochemical immersion well reactor (750 mL) with a mercury-vapor lamp

Photochemical reactions require a light source that emits wavelengths corresponding to an electronic transition in the reactant. In the early experiments (and in everyday life), sunlight was the light source, although it is polychromatic. Mercury-vapor lamps are more common in the laboratory. Low pressure mercury vapor lamps mainly emit at 254 nm. For polychromatic sources, wavelength ranges can be selected using filters. Alternatively, laser beams are usually monochromatic (although two or more wavelengths can be obtained using nonlinear optics) and LEDs have a relatively narrowband that can be efficiently used, as well as Rayonet lamps, to get approximately monochromatic beams.

Schlenk tube containing slurry of orange crystals of Fe2(CO)9 in acetic acid after its photochemical synthesis from Fe(CO)5. The mercury lamp (connected to white power cords) can be seen on the left, set inside a water-jacketed quartz tube. Fe2(CO)9SchlenkCropped.png
Schlenk tube containing slurry of orange crystals of Fe2(CO)9 in acetic acid after its photochemical synthesis from Fe(CO)5. The mercury lamp (connected to white power cords) can be seen on the left, set inside a water-jacketed quartz tube.

The emitted light must of course reach the targeted functional group without being blocked by the reactor, medium, or other functional groups present. For many applications, quartz is used for the reactors as well as to contain the lamp. Pyrex absorbs at wavelengths shorter than 275 nm. The solvent is an important experimental parameter. Solvents are potential reactants and for this reason, chlorinated solvents are avoided because the C-Cl bond can lead to chlorination of the substrate. Strongly absorbing solvents prevent photons from reaching the substrate. Hydrocarbon solvents absorb only at short wavelengths and are thus preferred for photochemical experiments requiring high energy photons. Solvents containing unsaturation absorb at longer wavelengths and can usefully filter out short wavelengths. For example, cyclohexane and acetone "cut off" (absorb strongly) at wavelengths shorter than 215 and 330 nm, respectively.

Photochemistry in combination with flow chemistry

Continuous flow photochemistry offers multiple advantages over batch photochemistry. Photochemical reactions are driven by the number of photons that are able to activate molecules causing the desired reaction. The large surface area to volume ratio of a microreactor maximizes the illumination, and at the same time allows for efficient cooling, which decreases the thermal side products. [6]

Principles

In the case of photochemical reactions, light provides the activation energy. Simplistically, light is one mechanism for providing the activation energy required for many reactions. If laser light is employed, it is possible to selectively excite a molecule so as to produce a desired electronic and vibrational state. [7] Equally, the emission from a particular state may be selectively monitored, providing a measure of the population of that state. If the chemical system is at low pressure, this enables scientists to observe the energy distribution of the products of a chemical reaction before the differences in energy have been smeared out and averaged by repeated collisions.

The absorption of a photon of light by a reactant molecule may also permit a reaction to occur not just by bringing the molecule to the necessary activation energy, but also by changing the symmetry of the molecule's electronic configuration, enabling an otherwise inaccessible reaction path, as described by the Woodward–Hoffmann selection rules. A 2+2 cycloaddition reaction is one example of a pericyclic reaction that can be analyzed using these rules or by the related frontier molecular orbital theory.

Some photochemical reactions are several orders of magnitude faster than thermal reactions; reactions as fast as 10−9 seconds and associated processes as fast as 10−15 seconds are often observed.

The photon can be absorbed directly by the reactant or by a photosensitizer, which absorbs the photon and transfers the energy to the reactant. The opposite process is called quenching when a photoexcited state is deactivated by a chemical reagent.

Most photochemical transformations occur through a series of simple steps known as primary photochemical processes. One common example of these processes is the excited state proton transfer.

Photochemical reactions

Examples of photochemical reactions

Organic photochemistry

Examples of photochemical organic reactions are electrocyclic reactions, radical reactions, photoisomerization and Norrish reactions. [15] [16]

Norrish type II reaction Norrish2.png
Norrish type II reaction

Alkenes undergo many important reactions that proceed via a photon-induced π to π* transition. The first electronic excited state of an alkene lack the π-bond, so that rotation about the C-C bond is rapid and the molecule engages in reactions not observed thermally. These reactions include cis-trans isomerization, cycloaddition to other (ground state) alkene to give cyclobutane derivatives. The cis-trans isomerization of a (poly)alkene is involved in retinal, a component of the machinery of vision. The dimerization of alkenes is relevant to the photodamage of DNA, where thymine dimers are observed upon illuminating DNA to UV radiation. Such dimers interfere with transcription. The beneficial effects of sunlight are associated with the photochemically induced retro-cyclization (decyclization) reaction of ergosterol to give vitamin D. In the DeMayo reaction, an alkene reacts with a 1,3-diketone reacts via its enol to yield a 1,5-diketone. Still another common photochemical reaction is Howard Zimmerman's di-π-methane rearrangement.

In an industrial application, about 100,000 tonnes of benzyl chloride are prepared annually by the gas-phase photochemical reaction of toluene with chlorine. [17] The light is absorbed by chlorine molecule, the low energy of this transition being indicated by the yellowish color of the gas. The photon induces homolysis of the Cl-Cl bond, and the resulting chlorine radical converts toluene to the benzyl radical:

Cl2 + hν → 2 Cl·
C6H5CH3 + Cl· → C6H5CH2· + HCl
C6H5CH2· + Cl· → C6H5CH2Cl

Mercaptans can be produced by photochemical addition of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to alpha olefins.

Inorganic and organometallic photochemistry

Coordination complexes and organometallic compounds are also photoreactive. These reactions can entail cis-trans isomerization. More commonly photoreactions result in dissociation of ligands, since the photon excites an electron on the metal to an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the ligands. Thus, metal carbonyls that resist thermal substitution undergo decarbonylation upon irradiation with UV light. UV-irradiation of a THF solution of molybdenum hexacarbonyl gives the THF complex, which is synthetically useful:

Mo(CO)6 + THF → Mo(CO)5(THF) + CO

In a related reaction, photolysis of iron pentacarbonyl affords diiron nonacarbonyl (see figure):

2 Fe(CO)5 → Fe2(CO)9 + CO

Select photoreactive coordination complexes can undergo oxidation-reduction processes via single electron transfer. This electron transfer can occur within the inner or outer coordination sphere of the metal. [18]

Types of Photochemical Reactions

Here are some different types of photochemical reactions-

Historical

Although bleaching has long been practiced, the first photochemical reaction was described by Trommsdorff in 1834. [19] He observed that crystals of the compound α-santonin when exposed to sunlight turned yellow and burst. In a 2007 study the reaction was described as a succession of three steps taking place within a single crystal. [20]

SantoninPhotochemicalreaction.png

The first step is a rearrangement reaction to a cyclopentadienone intermediate 2, the second one a dimerization in a Diels-Alder reaction (3) and the third one an intramolecular [2+2]cycloaddition (4). The bursting effect is attributed to a large change in crystal volume on dimerization.

Specialized journals

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical reaction</span> Process that results in the interconversion of chemical species

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei, and can often be described by a chemical equation. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Excimer</span> Excited dimeric molecule containing a noble gas

An excimer is a short-lived dimeric or heterodimeric molecule formed from two species, at least one of which has a valence shell completely filled with electrons. In this case, formation of molecules is possible only if such atom is in an electronic excited state. Heteronuclear molecules and molecules that have more than two species are also called exciplex molecules. Excimers are often diatomic and are composed of two atoms or molecules that would not bond if both were in the ground state. The lifetime of an excimer is very short, on the order of nanoseconds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemiluminescence</span> Emission of light as a result of a chemical reaction

Chemiluminescence is the emission of light (luminescence) as the result of a chemical reaction. There may also be limited emission of heat. Given reactants A and B, with an excited intermediate ◊,

In physics and physical chemistry, time-resolved spectroscopy is the study of dynamic processes in materials or chemical compounds by means of spectroscopic techniques. Most often, processes are studied after the illumination of a material occurs, but in principle, the technique can be applied to any process that leads to a change in properties of a material. With the help of pulsed lasers, it is possible to study processes that occur on time scales as short as 10−16 seconds. All time-resolved spectra are suitable to be analyzed using the two-dimensional correlation method for a correlation map between the peaks.

Photobiology is the scientific study of the beneficial and harmful interactions of light in living organisms. The field includes the study of photophysics, photochemistry, photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, visual processing, circadian rhythms, photomovement, bioluminescence, and ultraviolet radiation effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Singlet oxygen</span> Oxygen with all of its electrons spin paired

Singlet oxygen, systematically named dioxygen(singlet) and dioxidene, is a gaseous inorganic chemical with the formula O=O, which is in a quantum state where all electrons are spin paired. It is kinetically unstable at ambient temperature, but the rate of decay is slow.

The quantum yield (Φ) of a radiation-induced process is the number of times a specific event occurs per photon absorbed by the system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photochromism</span> Reversible chemical transformation by absorption of electromagnetic radiation

Photochromism is the reversible transformation of a chemical species (photoswitch) between two forms by the absorption of electromagnetic radiation (photoisomerization), where the two forms have different absorption spectra. In plain language, this can be described as a reversible change of color upon exposure to light.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photosensitizer</span> Type of molecule reacting to light

Photosensitizers are light absorbers that alters the course of a photochemical reaction. They usually are catalysts. They can function by many mechanisms, sometimes they donate an electron to the substrate, sometimes they abstract a hydrogen atom from the substrate. At the end of this process, the photosensitizer returns to its ground state, where it remains chemically intact, poised to absorb more light. One branch of chemistry which frequently utilizes photosensitizers is polymer chemistry, using photosensitizers in reactions such as photopolymerization, photocrosslinking, and photodegradation. Photosensitizers are also used to generate prolonged excited electronic states in organic molecules with uses in photocatalysis, photon upconversion and photodynamic therapy. Generally, photosensitizers absorb electromagnetic radiation consisting of infrared radiation, visible light radiation, and ultraviolet radiation and transfer absorbed energy into neighboring molecules. This absorption of light is made possible by photosensitizers' large de-localized π-systems, which lowers the energy of HOMO and LUMO orbitals to promote photoexcitation. While many photosensitizers are organic or organometallic compounds, there are also examples of using semiconductor quantum dots as photosensitizers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photodegradation</span>

Photodegradation is the alteration of materials by light. Commonly, the term is used loosely to refer to the combined action of sunlight and air, which cause oxidation and hydrolysis. Often photodegradation is intentionally avoided, since it destroys paintings and other artifacts. It is, however, partly responsible for remineralization of biomass and is used intentionally in some disinfection technologies. Photodegradation does not apply to how materials may be aged or degraded via infrared light or heat, but does include degradation in all of the ultraviolet light wavebands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Woodward–Hoffmann rules</span>

The Woodward–Hoffmann rules, devised by Robert Burns Woodward and Roald Hoffmann, are a set of rules used to rationalize or predict certain aspects of the stereochemistry and activation energy of pericyclic reactions, an important class of reactions in organic chemistry. The rules are best understood in terms of the concept of the conservation of orbital symmetry using orbital correlation diagrams. The Woodward–Hoffmann rules are a consequence of the changes in electronic structure that occur during a pericyclic reaction and are predicated on the phasing of the interacting molecular orbitals. They are applicable to all classes of pericyclic reactions, including (1) electrocyclizations, (2) cycloadditions, (3) sigmatropic reactions, (4) group transfer reactions, (5) ene reactions, (6) cheletropic reactions, and (7) dyotropic reactions. Due to their elegance, simplicity, and generality, the Woodward–Hoffmann rules are credited with first exemplifying the power of molecular orbital theory to experimental chemists.

A photochemical logic gate is based on the photochemical intersystem crossing and molecular electronic transition between photochemically active molecules, leading to logic gates that can be produced.

Photoprotection is the biochemical process that helps organisms cope with molecular damage caused by sunlight. Plants and other oxygenic phototrophs have developed a suite of photoprotective mechanisms to prevent photoinhibition and oxidative stress caused by excess or fluctuating light conditions. Humans and other animals have also developed photoprotective mechanisms to avoid UV photodamage to the skin, prevent DNA damage, and minimize the downstream effects of oxidative stress.

Organic photochemistry encompasses organic reactions that are induced by the action of light. The absorption of ultraviolet light by organic molecules often leads to reactions. In the earliest days, sunlight was employed, while in more modern times ultraviolet lamps are employed. Organic photochemistry has proven to be a very useful synthetic tool. Complex organic products can be obtained simply.

Physical organic chemistry, a term coined by Louis Hammett in 1940, refers to a discipline of organic chemistry that focuses on the relationship between chemical structures and reactivity, in particular, applying experimental tools of physical chemistry to the study of organic molecules. Specific focal points of study include the rates of organic reactions, the relative chemical stabilities of the starting materials, reactive intermediates, transition states, and products of chemical reactions, and non-covalent aspects of solvation and molecular interactions that influence chemical reactivity. Such studies provide theoretical and practical frameworks to understand how changes in structure in solution or solid-state contexts impact reaction mechanism and rate for each organic reaction of interest.

The di-π-methane rearrangement is a photochemical reaction of a molecular entity that contains two π-systems separated by a saturated carbon atom, to form an ene- substituted cyclopropane. The rearrangement reaction formally amounts to a 1,2 shift of one ene group or the aryl group and bond formation between the lateral carbons of the non-migrating moiety.

The photostationary state of a reversible photochemical reaction is the equilibrium chemical composition under a specific kind of electromagnetic irradiation.

Photoelectrochemical processes are processes in photoelectrochemistry; they usually involve transforming light into other forms of energy. These processes apply to photochemistry, optically pumped lasers, sensitized solar cells, luminescence, and photochromism.

In organic chemistry, enone–alkene cycloadditions are a version of the [2+2] cycloaddition This reaction involves an enone and alkene as substrates. Although the concerted photochemical [2+2] cycloaddition is allowed, the reaction between enones and alkenes is stepwise and involves discrete diradical intermediates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photooxygenation</span> Light-induced oxidation reaction

A photooxygenation is a light-induced oxidation reaction in which molecular oxygen is incorporated into the product(s). Initial research interest in photooxygenation reactions arose from Oscar Raab's observations in 1900 that the combination of light, oxygen and photosensitizers is highly toxic to cells. Early studies of photooxygenation focused on oxidative damage to DNA and amino acids, but recent research has led to the application of photooxygenation in organic synthesis and photodynamic therapy.

References

  1. ↑ IUPAC , Compendium of Chemical Terminology , 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) " photochemistry ". doi : 10.1351/goldbook.P04588
  2. ↑ Glusac, Ksenija (2016). "What has light ever done for chemistry?". Nature Chemistry. 8 (8): 734–735. Bibcode:2016NatCh...8..734G. doi:10.1038/nchem.2582. PMID   27442273.
  3. ↑ Calvert, J. G.; Pitts, J. N. Photochemistry. Wiley & Sons: New York, US, 1966. Congress Catalog number: 65-24288
  4. ↑ Photochemistry, website of William Reusch (Michigan State University), accessed 26 June 2016
  5. ↑ Wayne, C. E.; Wayne, R. P. Photochemistry, 1st ed.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, reprinted 2005. ISBN   0-19-855886-4.
  6. ↑ Oelgemöller, Michael; Shvydkiv, Oksana (2011). "Recent Advances in Microflow Photochemistry". Molecules. 16 (9): 7522–7550. doi: 10.3390/molecules16097522 . PMC   6264405 . PMID   21894087.
  7. ↑ Menzel, Jan P.; Noble, Benjamin B.; Lauer, Andrea; Coote, Michelle L.; Blinco, James P.; Barner-Kowollik, Christopher (2017). "Wavelength Dependence of Light-Induced Cycloadditions". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 139 (44): 15812–15820. doi:10.1021/jacs.7b08047. hdl: 1885/209117 . ISSN   0002-7863. PMID   29024596.
  8. ↑ Saunders, D. S. (2002-11-11). Insect Clocks, Third Edition. p. 179. ISBN   0444504079.
  9. ↑ Lefebvre, Corentin; Hoffmann, Norbert (2021-01-01), Török, Béla; Schäfer, Christian (eds.), "Chapter Eight - Photochemical rearrangements in organic synthesis and the concept of the photon as a traceless reagent", Nontraditional Activation Methods in Green and Sustainable Applications, Advances in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, Elsevier, pp. 283–328, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819009-8.00008-6, ISBN   978-0-12-819009-8, S2CID   234209169 , retrieved 2022-01-24
  10. ↑ Lefebvre, Corentin; Fortier, Lucas; Hoffmann, Norbert (2020). "Photochemical Rearrangements in Heterocyclic Chemistry". European Journal of Organic Chemistry. 2020 (10): 1393–1404. doi:10.1002/ejoc.201901190. ISSN   1099-0690. S2CID   204117942.
  11. ↑ Dugave, Christophe (2006-10-06). Cis-trans Isomerization in Biochemistry . pp.  56. ISBN   9783527313044.
  12. ↑ Protti, Stefano; Fagnoni, Maurizio (2009). "The sunny side of chemistry: Green synthesis by solar light". Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences. 8 (11): 1499–516. doi:10.1039/B909128A. PMID   19862408.
  13. ↑ Peplow, Mark (17 April 2013). "Sanofi launches malaria drug production". Chemistry World.
  14. ↑ Paddon, C. J.; Westfall, P. J.; Pitera, D. J.; Benjamin, K.; Fisher, K.; McPhee, D.; Leavell, M. D.; Tai, A.; Main, A.; Eng, D.; Polichuk, D. R. (2013). "High-level semi-synthetic production of the potent antimalarial artemisinin". Nature. 496 (7446): 528–532. Bibcode:2013Natur.496..528P. doi: 10.1038/nature12051 . ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   23575629.
  15. ↑ Klán, Petr; Wirz, Jakob (2009-03-23). Photochemistry of Organic Compounds: From Concepts to Practice. ISBN   978-1405190886.
  16. ↑ Turro, Nicholas J.; Ramamurthy, V.; Scaiano, Juan C. (2010). Modern Molecular Photochemistry of Organic Molecules. ISBN   978-1891389252.
  17. ↑ Rossberg, Manfred; Lendle, Wilhelm; Pfleiderer, Gerhard; Tögel, Adolf; Dreher, Eberhard-Ludwig; Langer, Ernst; Rassaerts, Heinz; Kleinschmidt, Peter; Strack, Heinz; Cook, Richard; Beck, Uwe; Lipper, Karl-August; Torkelson, Theodore R.; Löser, Eckhard; Beutel, Klaus K.; Mann, Trevor (2006). "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_233.pub2. ISBN   3527306730.
  18. ↑ Balzani, Vincenzo; Carassiti, Vittorio (1970). Photochemistry of Coordination Compounds. New York, New York: Academic Press, Inc. pp. 37–39. ISBN   9780120772506.
  19. ↑ Trommsdorff, Hermann (1834). "Ueber Santonin". Annalen der Pharmacie. 11 (2): 190–207. doi:10.1002/jlac.18340110207.
  20. ↑ Natarajan, Arunkumar; Tsai, C. K.; Khan, Saeed I.; McCarren, Patrick; Houk, K. N.; Garcia-Garibay, Miguel A. (2007). "The Photoarrangement of α-Santonin is a Single-Crystal-to-Single-Crystal Reaction: A Long Kept Secret in Solid-State Organic Chemistry Revealed". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 129 (32): 9846–9847. doi:10.1021/ja073189o. PMID   17645337.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.