Pollution prevention in the US

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Pollution prevention (P2) is a strategy for reducing the amount of waste created and released into the environment, particularly by industrial facilities, agriculture, or consumers. Many large corporations view P2 as a method of improving the efficiency and profitability of production processes through waste reduction and technology advancements. [1] Legislative bodies have enacted P2 measures, such as the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 in the United States Congress. [2]

Contents

Background

The pollution in Los Angeles can be very evident, prompting calls for pollution prevention strategies. Los Angeles Pollution.jpg
The pollution in Los Angeles can be very evident, prompting calls for pollution prevention strategies.

Significance

Pollution prevention is any action that reduces the amount of contaminants released into the environment. Implementation of such processes reduces the severity and/or number of hazards posed to both public health and the environment. Prevention of pollution preserves natural resources and can also have significant financial benefits in large scale processes. [3] If companies produce less waste, they do not have to worry about proper disposal. Thus, P2 is also a proactive measure to reduce the costs of waste disposal and elimination. [2]

Sources

Ships in port often have engines idling for days, releasing copious amounts of pollutants. Port Auckland (373471767).jpg
Ships in port often have engines idling for days, releasing copious amounts of pollutants.

Shipping ports are a significant source of pollution due to the heavy cargo traffic that these areas receive. The impact of these ships is quite widespread, affecting coastal communities and ecosystems across the globe. Most major shipping ports are located near environmentally sensitive estuaries. These areas are particularly impacted by high levels of diesel exhaust, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and sulfur oxides. The solution for reducing port-related pollution is multi-fold, encompassing attainable alternatives and long-term reduction goals. Examples of simple steps include a restriction on engine idling for ships in the port and the use of cleaner grade diesel fuels. Some more expensive measures can be taken to mitigate the pollution of ships. Replacing older model ships with ships containing new engines allows the ships to meet modern emission standards. Exhaust systems can also be retrofitted in order to reduce exhaust emissions. Looking ahead into the future, there are a few technologies being developed. For example, plugging ships into "shore-side" power sources may eliminate the need for idling engines. Additionally, various sources of alternative fuel are being developed, the most significant of which is a fuel cell unit. [4]

Due to increased trade, the emissions from ships are expected to become the second largest source of diesel particulate matter by 2020. One approach to reduction as set forth by the International Forum on Globalization (IFG) is to increase the amount of local trading, thereby reducing the number of miles that ships have to travel. Another approach regards the strategic placement of ports close to land transportation infrastructure such as roads and railroads. Again, this reduces the distance that vehicles have to travel between the initial and final destinations. Railroads that reach all the way to ports are a significant way to produce less toxic pollutants, as this eliminates the need for less-efficient trucks to transport the goods from the coastal port to the inland railroad infrastructure. [4]

In 2017, the biggest pollutants included carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons, lead, and particulate matter according to Theilmann in the U.S. Clean Air Act. [5] These pollutants harm the environment as well as the citizens living in these areas. The pollutants contribute to climate change and can result in acid rain. Citizens living in car-dominant highly populated areas are at the risk of health issues caused by these pollutants, ranging from chronic cough to death. According to Singh, the groups of people most affected by air pollution include children, people suffering from an underlying chronic disease, the asthmatic, and elderly. These groups are faced with an increase in trips to the hospital, worsened cough, episodes of rhinitis, and asthma attacks. [6] Theilman states that the Clean Air Act has done a successful job at assessing and limiting the pollutants that harm humans from stationary and mobile sources. With policies like the Clean Air Act, and replacement of trees removed by deforestation, humans can reduct their carbon footprint and improve the quality of air.

Health hazards

P2 strategies can mitigate many health hazards associated with pollution. Long-term exposure to certain pollutants can cause cancer, heart disease, asthma, birth defects, and premature death. [4] Additionally, pollution of bodies of water can be detrimental to biodiversity.

U.S. legislation

Pollution Prevention Act of 1990

To promote pollution prevention, the United States Congress passed the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990. [7] Congress declared that pollution should be prevented and reduced wherever possible; in addition, any waste that must be released into the environment must be done in a responsible, environmentally-conscious manner. The law requires the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to:

In order to enforce the points outlined in the act, EPA is directed to present a report to Congress biennially. The act requires that companies fill out a toxic chemical release form allowing EPA to collect information on the levels of pollution released into the environment. [2]

Clean Air Act

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 provided many P2 strategies, including governmental intervention, research and development programs, guidelines for efficient technologies, reduction of vehicle emissions, and a suggested Congressional status report. [2]

2010–2014 Pollution Prevention Program Strategic Plan

The EPA 2010–2014 Pollution Prevention Program Strategic Plan introduced a number of ways to reduce harmful industrial outputs (i.e. greenhouse gases, hazardous materials) while conserving natural resources. [8]

Production techniques

As an environmental management strategy, P2 shares many attributes with cleaner production, a term used more commonly outside the United States. Pollution prevention encompasses more specialized sub-disciplines including green chemistry and green design (also known as environmentally conscious design).

In industrial processes

Lumber is an example of a raw material that can be saved through implementation of pollution prevention processes. Truck load of ponderosa pine, Edward Hines Lumber Co, operations in Malheur National Forest, Grant County, Oregon, July 1942.jpg
Lumber is an example of a raw material that can be saved through implementation of pollution prevention processes.

The possibilities of P2 strategies in industrial processes are still being implemented at the corporate level, but benefits are already being realized by many companies. The view of P2 in industrial businesses has shifted from one of necessity to one of strategic advantage. If companies invest in P2 methods early in their development, they realize greater gains not too far down the road. [1] Additionally, if companies do not produce waste, they do not have to worry about properly disposing of it. Thus, P2 is a proactive measure taken to reduce costs in the long run that would have been dedicated to disposal and elimination of waste. [2]

There are two main ways to reduce waste through P2: increased efficiency and technology improvements. Waste reduction at the source implies the same amount of input raw materials with less waste and more output of the product. Technology improvements imply changes to the production process that reduce the amount of output waste, such as an improved recycling process. Companies are moving past simply complying with the minimum environmental requirements, and they are taking a more strategic, forward-thinking stance on tackling the issue.

One strategy is "in-process recycling". Though it is not the most efficient form of "reduction at the source", recycling is very profitable due to its ease of process. By engaging in recycling practices, industries not only cut down on the amount of material discarded as environmentally-hazardous waste, but they also increase profitability by reducing the amount of raw material purchased. The most widespread strategy is "reduction at the source", which is the idea that byproducts of production can be reduced through efficient and careful use of natural resources. This method reduces the amount of dangerous pollutants present in waste before the waste is released. In turn, this creates a safer environment free of hazardous waste. This idea ties strongly into the benefits to corporations of investing in newer, more efficient technology. [1]

Strategies

P2 task force

In order to reduce costs of P2 techniques, many officials are turning to pollution elimination strategies, thereby eliminating any need for end-of-pipe solutions. A task force was created by the EPA in order to directly target reduction strategies. The P2 program task force has 5 main goals:

  1. create feasible P2 objectives and corresponding time frames
  2. provide training to the individuals involved in the effort
  3. oversee the program's main tasks and measure progress
  4. evaluate the progress of the effort
  5. maintain the program's goals long term [9]

Voluntary approaches

Voluntary approaches to P2 are on the rise. Governmental organization often collaborate with businesses and regulatory agencies to create a structure of guidelines. There are four types of voluntary approach programs: public voluntary programs, negotiated agreements, unilateral commitments, and private agreements. Public voluntary agreements are the least restrictive. Environmental authorities collaborate and create specific guidelines. Companies are then invited to follow these procedures on a strictly voluntary basis. Negotiated agreements are created through collaboration between public authorities and industry authorities. The agreement establishes bargains that are beneficial to the industry. Unilateral commitments are established by industry authorities alone, and the guidelines they set are self-regulated. Private agreements are established between "polluters" and other affected parties. The regulations set forth create a compromise regarding a variety of pollution regulation strategies. The United States mainly follows the end-of-pipe prevention strategy. However, US President Richard Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970, and one of its principal missions was to regulate pollution. EPA's implementation of policies is almost entirely voluntary. [10]

There are a few keys to a successful voluntary approach. First, the program needs a dependable source of funding (from the government, usually). The program also needs a dynamic relationship with the targeted industries. This creates a base of trust between all involved in the agreement. In terms of regulation, the program should be monitored by a reliable source. In order to assure that the program will establish itself long term, there should be visible benefits to the participants and obvious results to the greater community. The long-term establishment of the program also comes from setting attainable goals to measure progress. [10]

Governmental approaches

EPA has published waste minimization guidelines that comprise 5 major steps:

  1. organizing the primary task force
  2. assessing the current pollution situation
  3. evaluating the feasibility of different program options
  4. reporting and planning the preparations based upon the analysis
  5. implementing the program.

This framework mainly benefits smaller facilities. [9]

Waste reduction algorithm

The EPA makes available software that employs the Waste Reduction Algorithm. They use the acronym WAR for this method and state "the goal of WAR is to reduce environmental and related human health impacts at the design stage". [11] The WAR tracks pollutants through the entire production process in order to obtain accurate measurements. [9]

Industrial efforts

By maximizing P2 opportunities, some companies choose to redesign their entire industrial process. Managers focus more on what enters and moves through the entire process, instead of only focusing on the output. Overall, the P2 strategies that financially benefit companies are the most likely to be implemented. However, since P2 has only recently[ when? ] been realized as a benefit, many corporations have not adopted significant measures to realize the potential gain. [12]

Potential benefits

Pollution prevention can also be viewed as a form of environmental entrepreneurship, as companies see opportunities to reduce costs of waste treatment, storage, and disposal. For example, 3M has accrued a savings of over $750 million since 1973 due to their implementation of P2 incentives.[ citation needed ] If implemented correctly, P2 strategies can result in an increase in process yield. By reducing the amount of pollution released, companies can avoid some of the liability costs accrued when large amounts of pollution are released and contaminate the land on which the facility is located. [12]

Individual efforts

Installing energy efficient lighting and appliances are a relatively cheap way to reduce pollution on a smaller scale. Senate Energy-efficient Lighting (28475055803).jpg
Installing energy efficient lighting and appliances are a relatively cheap way to reduce pollution on a smaller scale.

According to EPA, there are some everyday steps that can be taken to prevent pollution:

Additional examples of P2 include using energy efficient machinery, developing clean-burning fuel, reducing the amount of chemicals released into water sources, creating a production process that results in a reduced amount of waste, and utilizing water conservation techniques. [3]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hazardous waste</span> Ignitable, reactive, corrosive and/or toxic unwanted or unusable materials

Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. Hazardous waste is a type of dangerous goods. They usually have one or more of the following hazardous traits: ignitability, reactivity, corrosivity, toxicity. Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as hazardous wastes which are from non-specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical products. Hazardous wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, or solids. A hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the physical state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Industrial waste</span> Waste produced by industrial activity or manufacturing processes

Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, mills, and mining operations. Types of industrial waste include dirt and gravel, masonry and concrete, scrap metal, oil, solvents, chemicals, scrap lumber, even vegetable matter from restaurants. Industrial waste may be solid, semi-solid or liquid in form. It may be hazardous waste or non-hazardous waste. Industrial waste may pollute the nearby soil or adjacent water bodies, and can contaminate groundwater, lakes, streams, rivers or coastal waters. Industrial waste is often mixed into municipal waste, making accurate assessments difficult. An estimate for the US goes as high as 7.6 billion tons of industrial waste produced annually, as of 2017. Most countries have enacted legislation to deal with the problem of industrial waste, but strictness and compliance regimes vary. Enforcement is always an issue.

Toxics use reduction is an approach to pollution prevention that targets and measures reductions in the upfront use of toxic materials. Toxics use reduction emphasises the more preventive aspects of source reduction but, due to its emphasis on toxic chemical inputs, has been opposed more vigorously by chemical manufacturers. Toxics use reduction (TUR) can be subdivided into direct and indirect. Direct use focuses on substituting inputs in the production process and redesigning products to use less or no toxic chemicals. In the indirect process, there are process modifications, operation improvements, and recycling of chemicals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Municipal solid waste</span> Type of waste consisting of everyday items discarded by the public

Municipal solid waste (MSW), commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and rubbish in Britain, is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. "Garbage" can also refer specifically to food waste, as in a garbage disposal; the two are sometimes collected separately. In the European Union, the semantic definition is 'mixed municipal waste,' given waste code 20 03 01 in the European Waste Catalog. Although the waste may originate from a number of sources that has nothing to do with a municipality, the traditional role of municipalities in collecting and managing these kinds of waste have produced the particular etymology 'municipal.'

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ministry of Environment (South Korea)</span>

The Ministry of Environment is the South Korea branch of government charged with environmental protection. In addition to enforcing regulations and sponsoring ecological research, the Ministry manages the national parks of South Korea. Its headquarters is in Sejong City.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxics Release Inventory</span>

The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) is a publicly available database containing information on toxic chemical releases and other waste management activities in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste minimisation</span> Process that involves reducing the amount of waste produced in society

Waste minimisation is a set of processes and practices intended to reduce the amount of waste produced. By reducing or eliminating the generation of harmful and persistent wastes, waste minimisation supports efforts to promote a more sustainable society. Waste minimisation involves redesigning products and processes and/or changing societal patterns of consumption and production.

Cleaner production is a preventive, company-specific environmental protection initiative. It is intended to minimize waste and emissions and maximize product output. By analysing the flow of materials and energy in a company, one tries to identify options to minimize waste and emissions out of industrial processes through source reduction strategies. Improvements of organisation and technology help to reduce or suggest better choices in use of materials and energy, and to avoid waste, waste water generation, and gaseous emissions, and also waste heat and noise.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cruise ship pollution in the United States</span> Pollution of cruise ships in the United States

Cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers and crew have been compared to “floating cities,” and the volume of wastes that they produce is comparably large, consisting of sewage; wastewater from sinks, showers, and galleys (graywater); hazardous wastes; solid waste; oily bilge water; ballast water; and air pollution. The waste streams generated by cruise ships are governed by a number of international protocols and U.S. domestic laws, regulations, and standards, but there is no single law or rule. Some cruise ship waste streams appear to be well regulated, such as solid wastes and bilge water. But there is overlap of some areas, and there are gaps in others.

Source reduction is activities designed to reduce the volume, mass, or toxicity of products throughout the life cycle. It includes the design and manufacture, use, and disposal of products with minimum toxic content, minimum volume of material, and/or a longer useful life.

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The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the United States' primary federal air quality law, intended to reduce and control air pollution nationwide. Initially enacted in 1963 and amended many times since, it is one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws.

To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution. At the local level, regulation usually is supervised by environmental agencies or the broader public health system. Different jurisdictions often have different levels regulation and policy choices about pollution. Historically, polluters will lobby governments in less economically developed areas or countries to maintain lax regulation in order to protect industrialisation at the cost of human and environmental health.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air quality law</span> Type of law

Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere. A specialized subset of air quality laws regulate the quality of air inside buildings. Air quality laws are often designed specifically to protect human health by limiting or eliminating airborne pollutant concentrations. Other initiatives are designed to address broader ecological problems, such as limitations on chemicals that affect the ozone layer, and emissions trading programs to address acid rain or climate change. Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorising air pollutants, setting limits on acceptable emissions levels, and dictating necessary or appropriate mitigation technologies.

Solid waste policy in the United States is aimed at developing and implementing proper mechanisms to effectively manage solid waste. For solid waste policy to be effective, inputs should come from stakeholders, including citizens, businesses, community-based organizations, non-governmental organizations, government agencies, universities, and other research organizations. These inputs form the basis of policy frameworks that influence solid waste management decisions. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates household, industrial, manufacturing, and commercial solid and hazardous wastes under the 1976 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Effective solid waste management is a cooperative effort involving federal, state, regional, and local entities. Thus, the RCRA's Solid Waste program section D encourages the environmental departments of each state to develop comprehensive plans to manage nonhazardous industrial and municipal solid waste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mercury regulation in the United States</span>

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Mobile source air pollution includes any air pollution emitted by motor vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, and other engines and equipment that can be moved from one location to another. Many of these pollutants contribute to environmental degradation and have negative effects on human health. To prevent unnecessary damage to human health and the environment, environmental regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency have established policies to minimize air pollution from mobile sources. Similar agencies exist at the state level. Due to the large number of mobile sources of air pollution, and their ability to move from one location to another, mobile sources are regulated differently from stationary sources, such as power plants. Instead of monitoring individual emitters, such as an individual vehicle, mobile sources are often regulated more broadly through design and fuel standards. Examples of this include corporate average fuel economy standards and laws that ban leaded gasoline in the United States. The increase in the number of motor vehicles driven in the U.S. has made efforts to limit mobile source pollution challenging. As a result, there have been a number of different regulatory instruments implemented to reach the desired emissions goals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States regulation of point source water pollution</span> Overview of the regulation of point source water pollution in the United States of America

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Environmental issues in Toronto encompasses all those concerns and opportunities presented by the environment of Toronto. Many are harmful effects, such as the pollution of air and water, while others are factors influenced by urban infrastructures such as highways and public transportation services. As a result of the city's large population, substantial waste is produced annually.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Cagno, Enrico; Trucco, Paolo; Tardini, Lorenzo (2005-05-01). "Cleaner production and profitability: analysis of 134 industrial pollution prevention (P2) project reports". Journal of Cleaner Production. 13 (6): 593–605. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2003.12.025. ISSN   0959-6526.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Freeman, Harry; Harten, Teresa; Springer, Johnny; Randall, Paul; Curran, Mary Ann; Stone, Kenneth (1992). "Industrial Pollution Prevention! A Critical Review". Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 42 (5): 618–656. Bibcode:1992JAWMA..42..618F. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.399.695 . doi:10.1080/10473289.1992.10467016. ISSN   1047-3289.
  3. 1 2 3 "Learn About Pollution Prevention". Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013-06-04. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
  4. 1 2 3 Bailey, Diane; Solomon, Gina (2004-10-01). "Pollution prevention at ports: clearing the air". Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 24 (7–8): 749–774. Bibcode:2004EIARv..24..749B. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2004.06.005. ISSN   0195-9255.
  5. ↑ Theilmann, John (2017). "U.S. Clean Air Acts". Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
  6. ↑ Singh, D. K. (2018). "Study of Impact of Air Pollution on Asthma Among School Going Children Residing in Urban Agra". Indian Journal of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 32 (2): 65–69. doi: 10.4103/ijaai.ijaai_14_18 .
  7. ↑ United States. Pollution Prevention Act of 1990. Pub. L. Tooltip Public Law (United States)  101–508, title VI, §6602. Approved November 5, 1990.
  8. ↑ "Pollution Prevention Law and Policies". EPA. 2014-09-22. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
  9. 1 2 3 Hossain, Khandoker A.; Khan, Faisal I.; Hawboldt, Kelly (2008-01-15). "Sustainable development of process facilities: State-of-the-art review of pollution prevention frameworks". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 150 (1): 4–20. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.08.062. ISSN   0304-3894. PMID   17923292.
  10. 1 2 Chittock, Donald G.; Hughey, Kenneth F.D. (2011-03-01). "A review of international practice in the design of voluntary Pollution Prevention Programs". Journal of Cleaner Production. 19 (5): 542–551. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.03.015. ISSN   0959-6526.
  11. ↑ "Waste Reduction Algorithm: Chemical Process Simulation for Waste Reduction". 20 February 2015.
  12. 1 2 Lober, Douglas J. (1998). "Pollution prevention as corporate entrepreneurship". Journal of Organizational Change Management. 11 (1): 26–37. doi:10.1108/09534819810369554. ISSN   0953-4814.
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