Racism in North America

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Racism in North America and the state of race relations there are described in this article. Racism manifests itself in different ways and severities throughout North America depending on the country. Colonial processes shaped the continent culturally, demographically, religiously, economically, and linguistically. Racism was part of that process and is exemplified throughout North America today but varies regionally.

Contents

Canada

In a 2013 survey of 80 countries by the World Values Survey, Canada was ranked among the most racially tolerant societies in the world. [1] In 2021, the Social Progress Index ranked Canada 6th in the world for overall tolerance and inclusion. [2] [3]

Canadian author and journalist Terry Glavin claims that white Canadians consider themselves to be mostly free of racial prejudice,[ failed verification ] perceiving the country to be a "more inclusive society" than its direct neighbor the United States, [4] a notion that has come under criticism. [5] [6] For instance, Galvin cites the treatment of the Aboriginal population in Canada as evidence of Canada's own racist tendencies. [7] These perceptions of inclusion and "colour-blindness" have also been challenged in recent years by scholars such as Constance Backhouse stating that white supremacy is still prevalent in the country's legal system, with blatant racism created and enforced through the law. [8] According to one commentator, Canadian "racism contributes to a self-perpetuating cycle of criminalization and imprisonment". [9] In addition, throughout Canada's history there have been laws and regulations that have negatively affected a wide variety of races, religions, and groups of persons. [10] [11] [12]

Canadian law uses the term "visible minority" to refer to people of colour (but not aboriginal Canadians), introduced by the Employment Equity Act of 1995. [13] However, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination stated this term may be considered objectionable by certain minorities and recommended an evaluation of this term. In response, the Canadian government made efforts to evaluate how this term is used in Canadian society through commissioning of scholars and open workshops. [14]

In 2020, Canadian university students attracted media attention by sharing on Instagram their experiences of racism on campuses. [15] According to Ethnic and Racial studies, [16] Henry and Tator argued that in context of the Canadian universities, they have denied the role of racism in Canadian society and are resistant in the decision of changes which hinders incorporation and equity for students who are aboriginal.

Mexico

Racism in Mexico has a long history. [17] Historically, Mexicans who were more genetically Spanish and thus lighter skin tones, had absolute control over dark-skinned Indigenous people. That is evidenced in the Spanish colonial casta system. Generally, white Mexicans have made up the majority of Mexico's upper class and as such often feel a sense of superiority over the Amerindian population, most of whom have a low income. In Mexico, people who are darker-skinned or of indigenous descent make up the majority of the working classes, and lighter-skinned Mexicans of Spanish descent typically make up the majority of the upper class. However, there are notable exceptions as most of the poor in rural Northern Mexico are white, and in Southern Mexico, particularly in the states of Yucatán and Chiapas, Amerindians and Mestizos make up a large part of the upper class. [18]

In Mexico, the most common racism is used towards Mexican families, underlies multiple relational and individual conflicts. Most racist feelings in Mexico are sourced in differentiation from Indians although the indigenous people were inhabitants of the ancient territories before they were conquered by the Spaniards.

Trinidad and Tobago

The island nation of Trinidad and Tobago is a place of tension between Afro-Caribbeans and Indo-Caribbeans. [19] Around 39% of Trinidadians are of African descent, 40% are of Indian descent and a small population is of European descent. Africans usually live in urban areas, notably the East–West Corridor, and Indians usually live in the rural areas surrounding the sugar cane plantations.

According to W. Chris Johnson, [20] in 1973, a secret wing of Trinidad and Tobago's police administration went to war against an equally-shadowy group of youthful people called the National United Freedom Fighters. On September 13, 1973, Beverly Jones, a soldier of the NUFF was killed in a firefight with Trinidad and Tobago's force. Revolutionary young girls and women like Jennifer, Althea, and Beverley Jones battled gender violence and racism that assembled both with and against anti-imperialist movements in which black men in tradition "set the agenda and stole the show."

United States

Racism in the United States has been a major issue ever since the era of colonialism and slavery. There were 12.5 million individuals abducted from Africa and transported to the Americas via the transatlantic slave trade between 1525 and 1866. Only 10.7 million people made it through the terrifying two-month voyage. [21] Legally sanctioned racism imposed a heavy burden on Native Americans, African Americans, Latino Americans, Americans from less-developed parts of Europe, and Asian Americans. European Americans were privileged by law in matters of literacy, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, and criminal procedure over periods of time which extended from the 17th century to the 1960s. However, numerous European ethnic groups, including Jews, Irish, Southern European and Eastern European Americans, as well as immigrants from elsewhere, faced xenophobic exclusion and other forms of racism in American society.

Major racially structured institutions included slavery, Indian Wars, Native American reservations, segregation, residential schools (for Native Americans), and internment camps (for Japanese Americans). Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the mid-20th century and came to be perceived as being socially unacceptable and/or morally repugnant as well, but racial politics remains a major phenomenon. Historical racism continues to be reflected in socio-economic inequality. Racial stratification continues to occur in employment, housing, education, lending, and government.

As in most countries, many people in the US continue to have prejudice against other races. In the view of a network of scores of US civil rights and human rights organizations, "Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and it extends to all communities of color." Discrimination against African Americans and Latin Americans is widely acknowledged. Members of every major American ethnic and religious minority have perceived discrimination in their dealings with other minority racial and religious groups. Using US Department of Justice statistics to show social justice inequalities, the index found that blacks were more than twice as likely as whites to experience intimidation and violence during police encounters and were three times more likely to be detained upon arrest. It turned out to be three times more likely. It is said that in 2020, black people were 93% more likely to be victims of hate crime. [22]

The legal scholar Charles Lawrence, speaking about the American political elite, said that its "cultural belief system has influenced all of us; we are all racists." [23] The philosopher Cornel West has stated that "racism is an integral element within the very fabric of American culture and society. It is embedded in the country's first collective definition, enunciated in its subsequent laws, and imbued in its dominant way of life." [24]

Since Puerto Rico is a territory, rather than a state, the island is entitled to receive only certain "fundamental" constitutional protections, which is a source of their differential treatment. [25] Holding the status as residents of an incorporated territory, they are limited to certain rights, are unable to vote in federal elections, and are excluded from certain federal entitlements and welfare programs under the Fourteenth Amendment. [25] Furthermore, they hold zero representation in all branches of federal government, which proposes the application of a heightened judicial view under the equal protection doctrine. [25] The US Supreme Court holds the view that the US Congress may treat Puerto Rico unequally as long as it does so on a rational basis for its actions. [25] Federal courts have relied on that upholding and Puerto Rico's unincorporated territorial status and the resulting systematic inequality to deny plaintiff's equal protection lawsuits. [25]

See also

Related Research Articles

Racism is discrimination and prejudice against people based on their race or ethnicity. Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. The ideology underlying racist practices often assumes that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as inferior or superior. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, and related social phenomena.

Racial profiling or ethnic profiling is the act of suspecting, targeting or discriminating against a person on the basis of their ethnicity, religion, or nationality, rather than on individual suspicion or available evidence. Racial profiling involves discrimination against minority populations and often builds on negative stereotypes of the targeted demographic. Racial profiling can involve disproportionate stop searches, traffic stops, and the use of surveillance technology for facial identification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenophobia</span> Dislike of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange

Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of anything which is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression which is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-group and an out-group and it may manifest itself in suspicion of one group's activities by members of the other group, a desire to eliminate the presence of the group which is the target of suspicion, and fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity.

White is a racialized classification of people generally used for those of mostly European ancestry. It is also a skin color specifier, although the definition can vary depending on context, nationality, ethnicity and point of view.

Racial discrimination is any discrimination against any individual on the basis of their race, ancestry, ethnicity, and/or skin color and hair texture. Individuals can discriminate by refusing to do business with, socialize with, or share resources with people of a certain group. Governments can discriminate explicitly in law, for example through policies of racial segregation, disparate enforcement of laws, or disproportionate allocation of resources. Some jurisdictions have anti-discrimination laws which prohibit the government or individuals from being discriminated based on race in various circumstances. Some institutions and laws use affirmative action to attempt to overcome or compensate for the effects of racial discrimination. In some cases, this is simply enhanced recruitment of members of underrepresented groups; in other cases, there are firm racial quotas. Opponents of strong remedies like quotas characterize them as reverse discrimination, where members of a dominant or majority group are discriminated against.

Discrimination based on skin tone, also known as colorism or shadeism, is a form of prejudice and discrimination in which people of certain ethnic groups, or people who are perceived as belonging to a darker-skinned race, are treated differently based on their darker skin tone.

Institutional racism, also known as systemic racism, is defined as policies and practices that exist throughout a whole society or organization that result in and support a continued unfair advantage to some people and unfair or harmful treatment of others based on race or ethnic group. It manifests as discrimination in areas such as criminal justice, employment, housing, healthcare, education and political representation.

Racism has been reflected in discriminatory laws, practices, and actions against "racial" or ethnic groups throughout the history of the United States. Since the early colonial era, White Americans have generally enjoyed legally or socially sanctioned privileges and rights which have been denied to members of various ethnic or minority groups at various times. European Americans have enjoyed advantages in matters of education, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, and criminal procedure.

Covert racism is a form of racial discrimination that is disguised and subtle, rather than public or obvious. Concealed in the fabric of society, covert racism discriminates against individuals through often evasive or seemingly passive methods. Covert, racially biased decisions are often hidden or rationalized with an explanation that society is more willing to accept. These racial biases cause a variety of problems that work to empower the suppressors while diminishing the rights and powers of the oppressed. Covert racism often works subliminally, and much of the discrimination is done subconsciously.

Black Hispanic and Latino Americans, also called Afro-Hispanics, Afro-Latinos or Black Hispanics, or Black Latinos are classified by the United States Census Bureau, Office of Management and Budget, and other U.S. government agencies as Black people living in the United States with ancestry in Spain, Portugal or Latin America and/or who speak Spanish, and/or Portuguese as either their first language or second language.

The continent of South America is culturally and racially diverse. This article examines by country and region the current and historical trends in race relations and racism within South America. Racism of various forms is to be found worldwide. Racism is widely condemned throughout the world, with 170 states signatories of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination by August 8, 2006. In different countries, the forms that racism takes may be different for historic, cultural, religious, economic or demographic reasons.

Laissez-faire racism is closely related to color blindness and covert racism, and is theorised to encompass an ideology that blames minorities for their poorer economic situations, viewing it as the result of cultural inferiority. The term is used largely by scholars of whiteness studies, who argue that laissez-faire racism has tangible consequences even though few would openly claim to be, or even believe they are, laissez-faire racists.

Historically, Puerto Rico, which is now an unincorporated territory of the U.S., has been dominated by a settler society of religiously and ethnically diverse Europeans, primarily of Spanish descent, and Sub-Saharan Africans. The majority of Puerto Ricans are multi-ethnic, including people of European, African, Asian, Native American, and of mixed-ethnic descent.

Racism in German history is inextricably linked to the Herero and Namaqua genocide in colonial times. Racism reached its peak during the Nazi regime which eventually led to a program of systematic state-sponsored murder known as The Holocaust. According to reports by the European Commission, milder forms of racism are still present in parts of German society. Currently the racism has been mainly directed towards Asian and African countries by both the state and through the citizens which includes being impolite and trying to interfere in internal matters of African countries by the diplomats.

Racism in Mexico refers to the social phenomenon in which behaviors of discrimination, prejudice, and any form of antagonism are directed against people in that country due to their race, ethnicity, skin color, language, or physical complexion. It may also refer to the treatment and sense of superiority of one race over another.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Race and ethnicity in Latin America</span>

There is no single system of races or ethnicities that covers all modern Latin America, and usage of labels may vary substantially.

Racism in Canada traces both historical and contemporary racist community attitudes, as well as governmental negligence and political non-compliance with United Nations human rights standards and incidents in Canada. Contemporary Canada is the product of indigenous First Nations combined with multiple waves of immigration, predominantly from Europe and in modern times, from Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Racism in Finland</span> Overview of racism in Finland

A 2011 poll showed that 66% of Finnish respondents considered Finland to be a racist country but only 14% admitted to being racist themselves. Minority groups facing the most negative attitudes were Finnish Kale, Somalis, and ethnic groups mostly consisting of Muslims. Many Finnish people believe that Finns played little or no role in colonialism, a view known as "Finnish exceptionalism". However, Finns did settle while not an independent people the Sámi land and in the north and were involved in European colonial projects in Africa and North America. Finns at the time were subjects of Sweden and later the Russian Empire, which has been used to excuse their participation in colonialism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Racism in the United Kingdom</span> Manifestation of xenophobia and racism in the United Kingdom

Racism has a long history in the United Kingdom and includes structural discrimination and hostile attitudes against various ethnic minorities. The extent and the targets of racism in the United Kingdom have varied over time. It has resulted in cases of discrimination, riots and racially motivated murders.

Racism in Thailand is a prevalent problem but is only infrequently publicly discussed. The United Nations (UN) does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination": According to the 1965 UN International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, "...the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life." Thailand has made two submissions to the Convention, with ongoing issues including government policy towards ethnic groups, especially the Thai Malays, and the country's lack of racial discrimination legislation.

References

  1. ↑ "Map shows world's 'most racist' countries". Washington Post. May 15, 2013. Archived from the original on April 30, 2017. Retrieved April 30, 2017.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  2. ↑ "Canada ranks 7th on Social Progress Index - CBC News". CBC. 2014-04-03. Retrieved 2022-03-05.
  3. ↑ Greene, Michael. "2021 Social Progress Index rankings". Global Index:Results. Social Progress Imperative. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  4. ↑ Glavin, Terry (2017-08-28). "Are white Canadians becoming conscious of their whiteness?". Macleans.ca. Retrieved 2022-03-05.
  5. ↑ Kassam, Ashifa (2016-07-12). "Canada is hailed for its tolerance but is it ready to confront its racism?". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077. Archived from the original on June 12, 2019. Retrieved 2016-12-06.
  6. ↑ "No charges against Peel police in death of Jermaine Carby | The Star". thestar.com. 21 July 2015. Archived from the original on September 3, 2020. Retrieved October 7, 2020.
  7. ↑ Terry Glavin, "Canadians have no reason to be smug about race" Archived July 4, 2018, at the Wayback Machine (November 2014), The Ottawa Citizen
  8. ↑ Backhouse, Constance (1999). Colour-coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900–1950. Toronto: The Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History.
  9. ↑ "The Skin I'm In: I've been interrogated by police more than 50 times—all because I'm black". April 21, 2015. Archived from the original on October 24, 2018. Retrieved October 7, 2020.
  10. ↑ "McGill's 1926 Jewish ban | The McGill Daily". 2 September 2018. Archived from the original on August 12, 2020. Retrieved 2019-12-05.
  11. ↑ Statutes of Canada. An Act of Respecting and Regulating Chinese Immigration into Canada, 1885. Ottawa: SC 48–49 Victoria, Chapter 71
  12. ↑ "Chinese Canadian Recognition and Restitution Act". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) . House of Commons, Canada. 2005-04-18. p. 1100.
  13. ↑ "Employment Equity Act (1995, c. 44)". Archived from the original on February 12, 2007.
  14. ↑ "Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination" (PDF). United Nations. United Nations: Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
  15. ↑ Bowden, Olivia (10 September 2020). "Canadian university students use Instagram to reveal racism on campuses". CBC.
  16. ↑ Bailey, Kerry A. (2016-05-27). "Racism within the Canadian university: Indigenous students' experiences". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 39 (7): 1261–1279. doi:10.1080/01419870.2015.1081961. hdl: 11375/25398 . ISSN   0141-9870. S2CID   146254374.
  17. ↑ "The World; Racism? Mexico's in Denial.", The New York Times, June 11, 1995,
  18. ↑ "Racism Rears Its Ugly Head in Mexico", San Francisco Chronicle, August 3, 2005
  19. ↑ "TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO". www.un.org. Retrieved 2020-11-10.
  20. ↑ Johnson, W. Chris (November 2014). "Guerrilla Ganja Gun Girls: Policing Black Revolutionaries from Notting Hill to Laventille: Policing Black Revolutionaries from Notting Hill to Laventille". Gender & History. 26 (3): 661–687. doi:10.1111/1468-0424.12094. S2CID   143188389.
  21. ↑ "Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade - Database". www.slavevoyages.org. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
  22. ↑ Thomas P. Bonczar and Allen J Beck, Lifetime Likelihood of Going to State or Federal Prison, Bureau of Justice Statistics
  23. ↑ D'Souza, Dinesh (1996). The End of Racism. p. 17.
  24. ↑ West, Cornel (2002). Prophesy Deliverance!: An Afro-American Revolutionary Christianity. p. 116.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 Derieux, Adriel I. Cepeda (2010). "A Most Insular Minority: Reconsidering Judicial Deference to Unequal Treatment in Light of Puerto Rico's Political Process Failure". Columbia Law Review. 110 (3): 797–839. JSTOR   27806633.

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