Straight-tusked elephant Temporal range: Mid-Late Pleistocene ~ | |
---|---|
Skeleton in Rome | |
Skull in Germany | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Proboscidea |
Family: | Elephantidae |
Genus: | † Palaeoloxodon |
Species: | †P. antiquus |
Binomial name | |
†Palaeoloxodon antiquus | |
Approximate range of P. antiquus | |
Synonyms | |
Elephas antiquus(Falconer & Cautley, 1847) |
The straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) is an extinct species of elephant that inhabited Europe and Western Asia during the Middle and Late Pleistocene (781,000–30,000 years Before Present). It was larger than any living elephant, with adult males suggested to reach 3.81–4.2 metres (12.5–13.8 ft) in shoulder height, and 11.3–15 tonnes (12.5–16.5 short tons) in weight. Like modern elephants, the straight-tusked elephant lived in herds, flourishing during interglacial periods, when its range would extend as far north as Great Britain. Skeletons found in association with stone tools and wooden spears suggest they were scavenged and hunted by early humans, including Neanderthals. It is the ancestral species of most dwarf elephants that inhabited islands in the Mediterranean.
Like many other members of the genus Palaeoloxodon , P. antiquus possesses a well developed parieto-occipital crest at the top of the cranium. The crest functioned to anchor muscule tissue, including the splenius as well as an additional muscle layer called the "extra splenius" (which was likely similar to the "splenius superficialis" found in Asian elephants) which wrapped around the top of the head. The crest likely developed to support the very large size of the head, as the skulls of Palaeoloxodon are the largest proportionally and in absolute size among proboscideans. Two morphs of P. antiquus were previously suggested to exist in Europe on the basis of parieto-occipital crest variation, one more similar to P. namadicus, but these were shown to be the result of ontogenetic variation and taphonomic distortion. P. antiquus can be distinguished from the Indian P. namadicus based on its less stout cranium and more robust limb bones. [2] The premaxillary bones (which contain the tusks) are fan-shaped and very broad in front-view. The tusks are very long relative to body size and vary from straight to slightly curved. [3] The teeth are high crowned (hypsodont), with each third molar having approximately 16–21 ridges/lamellae. [4] The forelimbs of P. antiquus, particuarly the humerus and scapular, are proportionally longer than those of living elephants, resulting in the high position of the shoulder. The head represents the highest point of the animal, with the back being somewhat sloped though irregular in shape. The spines of the back vertebrae are noticeably elongate. The body (including the pelvis) was broad relative to extant elephants. The tail was relatively long. Although not preserved, the body was probably only sparsely covered in hair, similar to extant elephants, and probably had large ears. [3]
As with modern elephants, the species was sexually dimorphic, with males being substantially larger than females, with this size dimorphism being more pronounced than in living elephants. [3] P. antiquus was on average considerably larger than any living elephant. In a 2015 study, one approximately 40-year-old male specimen of P. antiquus from Viterbo in Italy was estimated at about 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) tall at the shoulders and estimated to weigh about 11.3 tonnes (12.5 short tons), while a fragmentary specimen including the humerus from Montreuil, France, was estimated to weigh about 15 tonnes (14.8 long tons; 16.5 short tons) and be 4.2 metres (13.8 ft) tall at the shoulder. The average male has been estimated to have had a shoulder height of 4 m (13.1 ft) and a weight of 13 tonnes (14.3 short tons) (for comparison, bulls of the largest living elephant species, the African bush elephant on average have a shoulder height of around 3.2 metres (10.5 ft) and a mass of around 6 tonnes (6.6 short tons)). [5] Adult males had tusks typically around 3.5–4 metres (11–13 ft) long, with masses comfortably exceeding 100 kilograms (220 lb), with the preserved portion of one particularly large tusk from Aniene, Italy measured to be 3.9 metres (13 ft) in length, having an estimated mass of over 190 kilograms (420 lb). [6] Females probably only reached a shoulder height of about 3 metres and weight of 5.5 tonnes (6.1 short tons). [3] A largely complete 5 year old calf from Cova del Rinoceront in Spain was estimated to have a shoulder height of 178–187 centimetres (5.8–6.1 ft) and a body mass of 1.45–1.5 tonnes (1.60–1.65 short tons), which is comparable to a similarly aged African bush elephant. [7]
In 1695, remains of a straight-tusked elephant were collected from travertine deposits near Burgtonna in what is now Thuringia, Germany. While these remains were originally declared by the Collegium Medicum in the nearby city of Gotha to be purely mineral in nature, Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel, a polymath in the employ of the ducal court of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, correctly recognised that they represented the remains of an elephant. [8] The species was named in 1847 by Hugh Falconer and Proby Cautley for remains found in East Sussex as Elephas antiquus. [9] The genus Palaeoloxodon was first named in 1924 by Matsumoto Hikoshichirō as a subgenus of Loxodonta , and E. antiquus subsequently assigned to the genus. [10] Some experts historically regarded the larger Asian species Palaeoloxodon namadicus as a variant or subspecies, [11] but they are now considered distinct. [2] Historically, the genus Palaeoloxodon has at times been regarded as a subgenus of Elephas (which contains the living Asian elephant), but this is no longer supported. [12]
In 2016, a mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis of P. antiquus found their mitochondrial genomes were nested within the mitochondrial genome diversity of the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis), with analysis of a partial nuclear genome supporting a closer relationship with L. cyclotis than to the African bush elephant (L. africana). [13] [14] A subsequent study published in 2018 by the same authors based on the complete nuclear genome indicated a more complicated relationship between straight-tusked elephants and other species of elephants; according to this study, the biggest genetic contribution to straight-tusked elephants comes a lineage of elephants that was most closely related but basal to the common ancestor of forest and bush elephants (~60% of total genomic contribution), which hybridized with African forest elephants (>33%) and to a lesser extent with mammoths (~5%). The African forest elephant ancestry was more closely related to modern West African forest elephants than to other African forest elephant populations. This hybridisation likely occurred in Africa, prior to migration of Palaeoloxodon into Eurasia, [15] and appears to be shared with other Palaeoloxodon species. [16]
Like other Eurasian Palaeoloxodon species, P. antiquus is believed to derive from the African Palaeoloxodon recki. P. antiquus first appears during the early Middle Pleistocene, with its first records around 780,000 years ago in Italy and Israel. Its earliest known appearance in northern Europe is in England around 600,000 years ago. Its arrival coincided with the replacement of Mammuthus meridionalis by Mammuthus trogontherii . There appears to be no overlap between M. meridionalis and P. antiquus, which suggests that the latter might have outcompeted the former. During P. antiquus's hundreds of thousands of years of existence, its morphology remained relatively static, unlike European mammoth populations. [17]
P. antiquus is known from abundant finds across Europe, ranging northwards to Great Britain and as far east as European Russia during interglacial periods. Fossils are also known from Israel, Iran and probably Turkey in West Asia, and also possibly from Kazakhstan and Tajikistan. During glacial periods P. antiquus permanently resided in the Mediterranean region. [18] [19] It is primarily associated with temperate and Mediterranean forest and woodland habitats, as opposed to the colder open steppe environments inhabited by contemporary mammoths, [20] though the species is also known to have inhabited open grasslands. [21] Many of the remains attributed to the species from Western Asia are primarily done so for geographical reasons, and it has been suggested that some of these specimens actually belong to P. recki. [22]
During interglacial periods, P. antiquus existed as part of the Palaeoloxodon antiquus large-mammal assemblage, along with other temperate adapted megafauna species, including the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), rhinoceroses belonging to the genus Stephanorhinus (Merck's rhinoceros S. kirchbergensis and the narrow-nosed rhinoceros S. hemitoechus), the European water buffalo (Bubalus murrensis), Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus), aurochs (Bos primigenius), European fallow deer (Dama dama), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), moose (Alces alces) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), [18] [23] with carnivores including European leopards (Panthera pardus spelaea), cave hyenas (Crocuta spelaea) cave/steppe lions (Panthera spelaea), wolves (Canis lupus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos). [23] The effect of straight tusked elephant and other extinct megafauna on vegetation likely resulted in increased openness of woodland habitats. [24]
As with modern elephants, female and juvenile straight-tusked elephants are thought to have lived in matriarchal herds of related individuals, with the adult males living solitary lives. Like modern elephants, the herds would have been restricted to areas with available fresh water due to the greater hydration needs and lower mobility of the juveniles. [25] Due to their larger size straight-tusked elephants are suggested to have finished growing later than living elephants (perhaps more than a decade longer, up to 50 years of age in males), and may also have lived longer than extant elephants, with lifespans perhaps in excess of 80 years. [3]
Dental microwear studies suggest that the diet of P. antiquus was highly variable according to the local conditions, ranging from almost completely grazing to nearly totally browsing (feeding on leaves, stems and fruits of high-growing plants), though microwear only reflects the diet in the last few days or weeks before death, so this may be reflecting seasonal dietary variation, [26] as is found in living elephants. [21] Isotopic analysis of a specimen from Greece suggests that it alternately consumed more browse during the dry months and more grass during the wet months. [21] A 2016 dental mesowear study of specimens from Britain found that most examined specimens had a browsing predominant mixed feeding diet, with clear niche separation from the more grazing dominated diet of the contemporary Mammuthus trogontherii. [27] [26]
Remains of straight-tusked elephants at numerous sites are associated with stone tools and/or bear cut and percussion marks indicative of butchery. In the case of most sites, it is unclear whether the elephants were hunted or were scavenged, though scavenging of already dead elephants as well as active hunting are likely to have occurred. [28] [29] These include the Gesher Benot Ya'akov [30] (c. 780 kya, [31] though other authors attribute the remains to P. recki [2] ) and Revadim Quarry [32] (sometime between 780 kya and 300-500 kya [31] ) sites in Israel, the Ambrona AS3 [33] (MIS 12 c. 478-425 kya) , Aridos 1 (MIS 11-9 424-300 kya) & 2 [34] (MIS 11 c. 425-375 kya) sites in Spain, the Notarchirico [35] (c. 670-610 kya, [31] though the evidence for butchery at this site is disputed [36] ), Ficoncella [37] (c. 500 kya), Castel di Guido [38] [39] [40] (c. 400 kya [40] ), La Polledrara di Cecanibbio (325–310 kya) [31] and Poggetti Vecchi (c. 171 kya) [41] sites in Italy, the Marathousa 1 site (c. 500-400 kya) [42] in Greece, the Ebbsfleet site (c. 425-375 kya) [43] in England, and the Schöningen (c. 300 kya) [44] Gröbern [28] [45] Taubach [45] Lehringen [46] [28] and Neumark Nord [28] (all dating to the Eemian interglacial, c. 130-115 kya) sites in Germany. [28] [45]
The creation of these sites is likely attributable to Homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthals. [29] Stone tools used at these sites include flakes, choppers, bifacial tools like handaxes, as well as cores . [29] At some sites, the bones of straight-tusked elephants were used to make tools. [40] There is evidence that exploitation of straight-tusked elephants in Europe increased and became more systematic from the mid-Middle Pleistocene (around 500,000 years ago) onwards. [29] [45] Based on analysis of sites of straight-tusked elephants with cut marks and/or artifacts, it has been argued that there is little evidence that straight-tusked elephants were targeted preferentially over smaller animals. [29] Most individuals at these sites are subadult to adult and primarily male in sex. The male sex bias likely both represents the fact that adult males, despite their larger size, were more vulnerable targets due to their solitary nature, as well as the tendency of adult male elephants to engage in risky behavior causing them to more frequently die in natural traps, as well as being weakened or killed by injures caused by combat with other male elephants during musth. [29]
At the Lehringen site in north Germany, a skeleton of P. antiquus was found with a spear made of yew wood between its ribs, with flint artifacts found close by, providing clear evidence that this specimen was hunted. [46] [28] Studies in 2023 proposed that in addition to Lehringen, the Neumark Nord, Taubach and Gröbern sites, which show evidence of systematic butchery, provided evidence of widespread hunting of straight-tusked elephants by Neanderthals during the Eemian in Germany. [28] [45] The remains of at least 57 elephants were found at Neumark Nord, which the authors suggested accumulated over around 300 years, with them estimating that one elephant was hunted around once every 5–6 years at the site. [28]
There are no cave paintings that unambiguously depicts P. antiquus, though an outline drawing of an elephant in El Castillo cave in Cantabria, Spain, as well as a drawing from Vermelhosa in Portugal have been suggested to possibly depict it, but could also potentially depict woolly mammoths. [20] [47]
P. antiquus retreated from northern Europe at the end of the Eemian interglacial due to climatic conditions becoming unfavourable, and fossils after that time are rare. A molar from Grotta Guattari in Italy has been suggested to date to around 57,000 years ago (though other studies have found it to have an older early Late Pleistocene age), with other remains from the Iberian Peninsula dating from 50-40,000 years ago, and possibly as late as 34,000 years ago based on a tooth found at Foz do Enxarrique in Portugal. [48] [20] A late date of around 37,400 years ago has been reported from a single molar found in the North Sea off the coast of the Netherlands, [49] but it has been suggested that this date needs independent confirmation, due to only representing a single sample. [50] A 2020 study suggested that P. antiquus likely survived until around 28,000 years ago in the southern Iberian Peninsula, based on footprints found in Southwest Portugal and Gibraltar. Its extinction is likely to be due to climatic deterioration, possibly in association with hunting. [51]
The extinction of P. antiquus and other temperate adapted European megafauna has resulted in the severe loss of functional diversity in European ecosystems. [23]
Dwarf elephants that presumably evolved from the straight-tusked elephant are known from many Mediterranean islands, spanning from Sicily and Malta in the west to Cyprus in the east. [48] The responsible factors for the dwarfing of island mammals are thought to be the reduction in food availability, predation and competition.
A mammoth is any species of the extinct elephantid genus Mammuthus. They lived from the late Miocene epoch into the Holocene about 4,000 years ago, and various species existed in Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America. Mammoths are more closely related to living Asian elephants than African elephants.
Elephantidae is a family of large, herbivorous proboscidean mammals collectively called elephants and mammoths. These are large terrestrial mammals with a snout modified into a trunk and teeth modified into tusks. Most genera and species in the family are extinct. Only two genera, Loxodonta and Elephas, are living.
Elephas is one of two surviving genera in the family of elephants, Elephantidae, with one surviving species, the Asian elephant, Elephas maximus. Several extinct species have been identified as belonging to the genus, extending back to the Pliocene era.
Palaeoloxodon is an extinct genus of elephant. The genus originated in Africa during the Early Pleistocene, and expanded into Eurasia at the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene. The genus contains some of the largest known species of elephants, over 4 metres (13 ft) tall at the shoulders, including the African Palaeoloxodon recki, the European straight-tusked elephant and the South Asian Palaeoloxodon namadicus. P. namadicus has been suggested to be the largest known land mammal by some authors based on extrapolation from fragmentary remains, though these estimates are highly speculative. In contrast, the genus also contains many species of dwarf elephants that evolved via insular dwarfism on islands in the Mediterranean, some only 1 metre (3.3 ft) in height, making them the smallest elephants known. The genus has a long and complex taxonomic history, and at various times, it has been considered to belong to Loxodonta or Elephas, but today is usually considered a valid and separate genus in its own right.
Dwarf elephants are prehistoric members of the order Proboscidea which, through the process of allopatric speciation on islands, evolved much smaller body sizes in comparison with their immediate ancestors. Dwarf elephants are an example of insular dwarfism, the phenomenon whereby large terrestrial vertebrates that colonize islands evolve dwarf forms, a phenomenon attributed to adaptation to resource-poor environments and lack of predation and competition.
Palaeoloxodon recki, often known by the synonym Elephas recki is an extinct species of elephant native to Africa and West Asia from the Pliocene or Early Pleistocene to the Middle Pleistocene. During most of its existence, the species represented the dominant elephant species in East Africa. The species is divided into five roughly chronologically successive subspecies. While the type and latest subspecies P. recki recki as well as the preceding P. recki ileretensis are widely accepted to be closely related to Eurasian Palaeoloxodon, the relationships of the other, chronologically earlier subspecies to P. recki recki and P. recki ileretensis are uncertain, with it being suggested they are unrelated and should be elevated to separate species.
The Chibanian, widely known as the Middle Pleistocene, is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being a division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. The Chibanian name was officially ratified in January 2020. It is currently estimated to span the time between 0.770 Ma and 0.126 Ma, also expressed as 770–126 ka. It includes the transition in palaeoanthropology from the Lower to the Middle Paleolithic over 300 ka.
Anancus is an extinct genus of "tetralophodont gomphothere" native to Afro-Eurasia, that lived from the Tortonian stage of the late Miocene until its extinction during the Early Pleistocene, roughly from 8.5–2 million years ago.
Palaeoloxodon falconeri is an extinct species of dwarf elephant from the Middle Pleistocene of Sicily and Malta. It is amongst the smallest of all dwarf elephants at only 1 metre (3.3 ft) in height. A member of the genus Palaeoloxodon, it derived from a population of the mainland European straight-tusked elephant.
Mammuthus meridionalis, sometimes called the southern mammoth, is an extinct species of mammoth native to Eurasia, including Europe, during the Early Pleistocene, living from around 2.5 million years ago to 800,000 years ago.
Mammuthus trogontherii, sometimes called the steppe mammoth, is an extinct species of mammoth that ranged over most of northern Eurasia during the Early and Middle Pleistocene, approximately 1.7 million-200,000 years ago. One of the largest mammoth species, it evolved in East Asia during the Early Pleistocene, around 1.8 million years ago, before migrating into North America around 1.5 million years ago, and into Europe during the Early/Middle Pleistocene transition, around 1 to 0.7 million years ago. It was the ancestor of the woolly mammoth and Columbian mammoth of the later Pleistocene.
Palaeoloxodon namadicus is an extinct species of prehistoric elephant known from the early Middle to Late Pleistocene of the Indian subcontinent, and possibly also elsewhere in Asia. The species grew larger than any living elephant, and some authors have suggested it to have been the largest known land mammal based on extrapolation from fragmentary remains, though these estimates are speculative.
Mammuthus lamarmorai is a species of dwarf mammoth which lived during the late Middle and Late Pleistocene on the island of Sardinia in the Mediterranean. It has been estimated to have had a shoulder height of around 1.4 metres (4.6 ft). Remains have been found across the western part of the island.
Palaeoloxodon cypriotes is an extinct species of dwarf elephant that inhabited the island of Cyprus during the Late Pleistocene. Remains comprise 44 molars, found in the north of the island, seven molars discovered in the south-east, a single measurable femur and a single tusk among very sparse additional bone and tusk fragments. The molars support derivation from the large straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus). The species is presumably derived from the older, larger P. xylophagou from the late Middle Pleistocene which reached the island presumably during a Pleistocene glacial maximum when low sea levels allowed a low probability sea crossing between Cyprus and Asia Minor. During subsequent periods of isolation the population adapted within the evolutionary mechanisms of insular dwarfism, which the available sequence of molar fossils confirms to a certain extent. The fully developed Palaeoloxodon cypriotes weighed not more than 200 kg (440 lb) and had a height of around 1 m (3.28 ft). The species became extinct around 12,000 years ago, around the time humans first colonised Cyprus.
The woolly mammoth is an extinct species of mammoth that lived from the Middle Pleistocene until its extinction in the Holocene epoch. It was one of the last in a line of mammoth species, beginning with the African Mammuthus subplanifrons in the early Pliocene. The woolly mammoth began to diverge from the steppe mammoth about 800,000 years ago in Siberia. Its closest extant relative is the Asian elephant. The Columbian mammoth lived alongside the woolly mammoth in North America, and DNA studies show that the two hybridised with each other.
Palaeoloxodon mnaidriensis is an extinct species of dwarf elephant belonging to the genus Palaeoloxodon, native to the Siculo-Maltese archipelago during the late Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene. It is derived from the European mainland straight-tusked elephant.
Palaeoloxodon naumanni, occasionally called Naumann's elephant, is an extinct species belonging to the genus Palaeoloxodon found in the Japanese archipelago during the Middle to Late Pleistocene around 330,000 to 24,000 years ago. It is named after Heinrich Edmund Naumann who discovered the first fossils at Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan. Fossils attributed to P. naumanni are also known from China and Korea, though the status of these specimens is unresolved, and some authors regard them as belonging to separate species.
The narrow-nosed rhinoceros, also known as the steppe rhinoceros is an extinct species of rhinoceros belonging to the genus Stephanorhinus that lived in western Eurasia, including Europe, as well as North Africa during the Pleistocene. It first appeared in Europe some 600,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene and survived there until at least 34,000 years Before Present.
Bubalus murrensis, also known as European water buffalo, is an extinct buffalo species native to Europe during the Pleistocene epoch.
Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis is an extinct species of elephant belonging to the genus Palaeoloxodon known from the Pleistocene of China.