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Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, formerly called Kattaka Caves or Cuttack caves, are partly natural and partly artificial caves of archaeological, historical and religious importance near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India. The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri mentioned as Kumari Parvata in the Hathigumpha inscription.[1] They have a number of finely and ornately carved caves built during the 1st century BCE.[2][3] It is believed that most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks during the reign of King Kharavela.[4] Udayagiri means "Sunrise Hill" and has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.[5]
The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, called lena or leṇa in the inscriptions, these were taken out mostly during the reign of Kharavela for the abode of Jain ascetics. The most importance of this group was Ranigumpha in Udayagiri which is a double storeyed monastery. Other important caves include Hathi Gumpha, Ananta Gumpha, Ganesha Gumpha, Jaya Vijaya Gumpha, Mancapuri Gumpha, Bagha/Byaghra/Vyaghra Gumpha and Sarpa Gumpha.[6]
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has listed that Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in the list of "Must See" Indian Heritage.[3]
The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are listed as one of the Adarsh Smarak Monument by ASI.[7]
Count of the caves
B. M. Barua, based on a reading of line 14 of the Hathi Gumpha inscription, declared that a total of 117 caves were excavated by Kharavela and others on the Kumari hill (Udayagiri). Marshall has counted more than 35 caves in both the hills, while M.M. Ganguli has enumerated only 27 caves.[8]
The number of existing caves at Udayagiri is 18, while Khandagiri has 15.[9] The local names of the existing caves are listed below, numbered according to the enumeration of the Archaeological Survey of India.
The famous caves
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
In Udayagiri, Hathi Gumpha (cave 14) and Ganesha Gumpha (cave 10) are especially well known for their historically important sculptures and reliefs. Raninka Na'ara (Queen's Palace Cave, Cave 1) is also an extensively carved cave and elaborately embellished with sculptural friezes.[6]Khandagiri offers a fine view back over Bhubaneswar from its summit. The Ananta Cave (Cave 3) depicts carved figures of women, elephants, athletes, and geese carrying flowers.[10]
Caves at Udayagiri
The Udayagiri hills are on the right-hand side as the visitor approaches from Bhubaneswar. Compared to Khandagiri, Udayagiri offers more beautiful and better maintained cave shrines. There are 18 caves in Udayagiri:[11]
1. Rani Gumpha "Cave of the Queen"
Rani Gumpha is the largest and most popular cave among the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.[12] The word Rani means "queen".[13] Although it is not an architectural marvel, it has some ancient beautiful sculptures.
This cave is double storeyed. Each storey has three wings and the central wing is bigger among all the three wings. The lower floor has seven entrances in the middle wing whereas the upper floor has nine columns. The upper portion of the central wing has relief images depicting the victory march of a king. Many of the cells have carved dwara pala images;[14] some of them are disfigured. The area that connects the central wing with right and left wings have some panels where the sculptures of wild animals, fruit-laden trees, human figures, women playing musical instruments, monkeys and playful elephants are found. The pilasters contain the torana (arches) decorated with sculptures of Jain religious importance and royal scenes.[15]
Bajaghara Gumpha is very simple and small. It has a stone bed and pillow and it was used as the Jain monks' shelter in ancient times. Apart from the plain rectangular-shaped pillars, there is no other sculpture in this cave.
3. Chota Hathi Gumpha
Chota Hathi Gumpha is small in size. It has six small elephant figures in the facade and a statue of a guardian.[17]
4. Alakapuri Gumpha
Alakapuri Gumpha has a relief sculpture of a lion holding its prey in its mouth. The cave has pillars with winged human figures (divine beings). It is double storeyed.
5. Jaya Vijaya Gumpha
A tree-worship relief from the Jaya Vijaya cave.
Jaya Vijaya Gumpha is double storeyed. The cave has a carving of a female wearing heavy earrings, bands, beautifully decorated hair. On one hand of the carving are a parrot and the other resting on her waist.[17]
6. Panasa Gumpha
Panasa Gumpha is a very small and simple cave without any significant features.
7. Thakurani Gumpha
Thakurani Gumpha is double storied but is very simple in style. It has a few tiny relief sculptures.
8. Patalapuri Gumpha
Patalapuri Gumpha is slightly bigger with a pillared verandah.
9. Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha
Manchapuri cave relief depicting the worship of Kalinga Jina
Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha is double storeyed. Manchapuri cave depicts two male and two female figures worshipping the Kalinga Jina that Kharval brought back from Magadha.[18] It has a damaged Jain religious symbol which was probably used for worship.
There are three inscriptions: one inscription talks about the chief queen of Kharavela, and the other two refer to Kudepasiri, the successor of Kharavela and Badukha, the son or brother of Kudepasiri.
10. Ganesha Gumpha
Ganesha Gumpha is one of the most important caves in Udayagiri. The cave is named for the carved figure of Ganesha on the back of its right cell. Of course, it would have been carved in the later period and it cannot be the original work. The cave has two large statues of elephants carrying garlands at the entrance and is the first example of sculpture animals used as a guard to the entrance.[12] Also, the carved figures of dwara palas are found at the entrances. The carvings in this cave narrate the story of the elopement of Bassavadatta, Princess of Ujjayini, with King Udayana of Kausambi in the company of Vasantaka.[12]
Cave No.10 "Ganesha Gumpha" (Cave of Ganesha)
The Ganesha idol at the back of the cave
Ganesha cave
Elephant statue
Warrior guardian
Relief of a devotee
Relief in the veranda
11. Jambesvara Gumpha
Jambesvara Gumpha is a very simple and small cave with one column and two pilasters.[19] The inscription tells that it is the cave of Nayaki, wife of Mahamade.
Vyaghra Gumpha is one of the popular caves in Udayagiri. The cave, which is in ruins, has an entrance carved like a tiger's mouth, with the single-cell forming the tiger's throat.[12] It is one of the most photographed sites in Udayagiri. The word vyaghra means "tiger".[20] The inscription found here tells that this cave belongs to the city judge Sabhuti.
13. Sarpa Gumpha
Sarpa Gumpha is an unusually small cave containing two inscriptions. The word sarpa means "snake".
14. Hati Gumpha
Hati Gumpha is a large natural cavern[17] with an inscription by Kharavela which is the main source of information about him.[21][22] The cave is known as Hati Gumpha due to its exquisite carvings of elephant.[23] The word hati means "elephant".[24]
The Hathigumpha inscription starts with a version of the auspicious JainNamokar Mantra venerating Arihant and Siddhas for in Jainism.
The Hathigumpha cave ("Elephant Cave") has the Hathigumpha inscription, written by Raja Kharavela, the king of Kalinga in India, during the 2nd century BCE.[4] The Hathigumpha inscription consists of seventeen lines incised in deep cut Brahmi letters on the overhanging brow of a natural cavern Hathigumpha in the south side of the Udayagiri hill. The inscription also refers to the Kharaval's feat of bringing back the status of Agra-Jina (transl.Rishabhanatha) which was taken by Nanda empire.[26][27][28] It faces the rock edicts of Asoka at Dhauli, situated about six miles away.[29]
Besides Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, there are some other minor Brahmi inscriptions in the twin hillocks of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, which were deciphered earlier by Prof RD Banergy during 1915–16 (Epigraphic Indica-XIII) and BM Baraua (Indian Historical Quarterly-XIV). Sadananda Agrawal has given further clarifications about them and is produced as under:[30]
I- Mancapuri cave inscription (Upper storey) This inscription refers to the construction of temple of arhats and excavation of cave for Jain monks by Aga-mahisi, chief queen of Kharavela.[27] The inscription also mention Kharavela as chakravatin of Kalinga.[31]
II- Mancapuri cave inscription (Upper storey)-A This inscription is incised on a raised bend between the 3rd and 4th doorways from the left and contains a single line. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
III-Manchapuri cave inscription (Lower storey)-B This inscription has been engraved on the right wall of Veranda, to the right of the entrance to the right-hand side chamber of the main wing, consisting of one line. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
कुमारो वडुखस लेणं
Translation – [This is] the cave of Prince Vaḍukha.
Note:- On palaeographic ground Prof Banergy considers this inscription to be a little earlier than the inscription of King Kudepasiri. According to Sadananda Agrawal, Prince Badukha stands as an obscure figure in history, but Badukha seems to be the son or brother of Kudepasiri.
IV- Inscriptions in the Sarpagumpha (Over the doorway)
This inscription consisting of one line is incised over the doorway of the Sarpagumpha. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
चूलकमस कोठाजेया च
Translation – The chamber and veranda/or side chamber of cūlakama. Note:- However Dr. Sahu interpreted Ajeya as being united by a Sandhi qualifying Koṭha thereby denoting invincible. But he ignored the conjunction ca (Devanagari: च) which follows Koṭha(Devanagari:कोठा) and Jeya (Devanagari:जेया).
V- Inscription in the Sarpagumpha ( to the left of the doorway) The text in Devanagari script is as under:
L.1- कंमस हलखि
L.2- णय च पसादो
Translation: [The pavilion is the] gift of Kamma and Halakhina.
Note:- Most probably Halakhiṇa was the wife of Kamma. Chūlakamma – found in the inscription No.IV and Kamma of this record indicates official designations rather than the proper names. Kamma may be taken as minister of works (Karma saciva) and Cūlakamma appears to be a junior cadre of a minister in the Department of works.
VI- Haridas cave inscription
This inscription contains one line that has been incised over one of the three entrances to the main chamber of the cave from the veranda. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
चूलकमस पसातो कोठाजेया च
Translation: The chamber and veranda (or side chamber) are the gifts of cūlakama.
VII- Vyāghragumphā inscription
The record is incised on the outer wall of the inner chamber. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
L.1- नगर अखंदस
L.2- स भूतिनो लेणं
Translation: The cave of Bhūti, the city judge.
VIII- Jambesavara cave inscription
This inscription has been engraved over the entrances to the inner chamber of the cave. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
महामदास बारियाय नाकियस लेणं
Translation: The cave of Mahāmāda Nākiya and Bāriyā.
X- Tatowāgumphā inscription (Cave No −1)
The record of this inscription is incised over one of the entrances to the inner chamber. The Text reads in Sanskrit as
Notes:- There is a syllable after the word lenam, which may be read as ni or phi, padamulika literally means, one who serves at the feet [of king].
Note:- Sadananda Agrawal has interpreted Masikanagara as Asikanagara and identified with the city Adam (Nagpur district). In view of the evidence of a highly prosperous city unearthed at Adam, Prof AM Shastri is of the opinion that Adam itself represents the Asikanagara of Hathigumpha inscription. It is worth noting in the present context that a terracotta sealing having a legend, has been discovered from Adam,[32] situated on the right bank of the river Wainganga, which reads Asakajanapadasa (Devanagari: असकजनपदस).
XI- Ananta Gumpha inscription (A)
The record is incised on the architrave between the left ante and the fifth pillar. The text in Oriya script is: Odia: ଦୋହଦ ସମଣନ ଲେଖ (Devanagari: दोहद समणनं लेणं
Translation: The cave of the Dohada Śramaṇas.
Caves at Khandagiri
Carving of Rishabhanatha and Ambika, Ambika GumphaCave of Ananta Gumpha.Carving of Tirthankaras & their respective Yakshini (attendant deities) inside Navamuni GumphaCarving of Jain Tirthankaras, Lalatendu Keshari GumphaStone work in Cave 12
The Khandagiri hills fall on your left side when you enter into this area from Bhubaneswar. There are 15 caves in Khandagiri.[11] These caves were renovated during the reign of Uddyotakeshari of Somavamshi dynasty.[27]
1. Tatowa Gumpha
The parrots are carved above the entrance arch and hence it is called as Tatowa Gumpha. It has two dwarapala figures too. There are sculptures of friezes, railing, arch, with kalasa inside the cave.[33]
2. Tatowa Gumpha
The cave is decorated with sculptural friezes like nayikas, gandhrvas, different animals and birds, chaitya arch, pilaster design, rafters and vaulted roof.[34]
3. Ananta Gumpha
The cave has sculptures of women, elephants, geese, etc.[35]
4. Tentuli Gumpha
It is a small rock-cut chamber with just one column.
5. Khandagiri Gumpha
It is a roughly cut cell and has double storeys.
6. Dhyana Gumpha
It is a roughly cut cell.
7. Navamuni Gumpha
Navamuni Gumpha is a roughly cut cell with the sculptures of nine Jain Tirthankaras and Sasana Devis. These sculptures were added to the caves in the 11th century by Somavamshi dynasty.[4][36]
8. Barabhuji Gumpha
There are altogether twenty five figures of Tirthankaras on the walls of the cell on three sides,[4] Parsvanatha being repeated twice. Beneath the Tirthankara, their respective Sasanadevis are found. Chakareswari is depicted with 12 arms giving the cave name Barabhuji. The image is now worshipped as a Brahminical deity. These sculptures were added to the caves in the 11th century by Somavamshi dynasty.[37]
9. Trusula Gumpha
There are three sculptures of Rishabha Deva who is found in the Kayotsarga posture.[38] Apart from these sculptures, there are sculptures of 24 Jain Tirthankaras which look rough.[4]
In cell 1, There are 2 images of Rishabhantha and 3 of Parshvanatha and in cell 2, 2 images of Parshvanatha and 1 of Rishabhantha. These sculptures were added to the caves in the 11th century by Somavamshi dynasty.[4][40]
Caves 12, 13 and 15 are unnamed. Cave 14 is very simple and called Ekadasi Gumpha.[41]
The Udayagiri Caves are twenty rock-cut caves near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh primarily denoted to the Hindu gods Vishnu and Shiva from the early years of the 3rd century CE to 5th century CE. They contain some of the oldest surviving Hindu temples and iconography in India. They are the only site that can be verifiably associated with a Gupta period monarch from its inscriptions. One of India's most important archaeological sites, the Udayagiri hills and its caves are protected monuments managed by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Kharavela was a monarch of Kalinga in present-day Odisha, India, who ruled during the second or first century BCE. The primary source for Kharavela is his rock-cut Hathigumpha inscription. The inscription is undated, only four of its 17 lines are completely legible, others unclear, variously interpreted and disputed by scholars. The inscription written with Jainism-related phrases recites a year by year record of his reign and panegyrically credits him with public infrastructure projects, welfare activities, patronage of the arts, and many military victories. Historians agree that it is best and most complete biography of Kharavela available. He was a follower of Jainism.
The Hathigumpha Inscription is a seventeen line inscription in a Prakrit language incised in Brahmi script in a cavern called Hathigumpha in Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India. Dated between the second century BCE and the first century CE, it was inscribed by the Jain king Kharavela of the Kalinga kingdom.
The Undavalli Caves, a monolithic example of Indian rock-cut architecture and one of the finest testimonials to ancient viswakarma sthapathis, are located in Vijayawada of Guntur district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. The caves are located south west of Vijayawada, 22 km north east of Guntur City of Andhra Pradesh. It is one of the centrally protected monuments of national importance.
Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance in that country than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the only rock left makes up the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature.
This article lists monuments and sites of historic importance in Odisha, India.
Bhandavpur Jain Tirth is situated in Bhundwa village, near Bhinmal (भीनमाल). It is Jain tirth of the Jalore district of Rajasthan.
The earliest undisputed deciphered epigraphy found in the Indian subcontinent are the Edicts of Ashoka of the 3rd century BCE, in the Brahmi script.
The Kalinga script or Southern Nagari is a Brahmic script used in the region of what is now modern-day Odisha, India and was primarily used to write Odia language in the inscriptions of the kingdom of Kalinga which was under the reign of early Eastern Ganga dynasty. By the 12th century, with the defeat of the Somavamshi dynasty by the Eastern Ganga monarch Anantavarman Chodaganga and the subsequent reunification of the Trikalinga(the three regions of ancient Odra- Kalinga, Utkala and Dakshina Koshala) region, the Kalinga script got replaced by the Siddhaṃ script-derived Proto-Oriya script which became the ancestor of the modern Odia script.
The Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela are the shorter inscriptions found near the major and celebrated Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela in the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves near Bhubanesvar, Odisha, India. These are inscribed on the walls or front of the caves in Brāhmī script and Prakrit language. They were published and deciphered by R. D. Banerji during the years 1915–16. Others such as B. M Barua have also published their comments on these. These minor inscriptions mention the construction of caves for Jain monks during or during the decades following the reign of Kharavela.
The Mahameghavahana dynasty was an ancient ruling dynasty of Kalinga after the decline of the Maurya Empire. In the first century B.C., Mahameghavahana, a king of Chedirastra conquered Kalinga and Kosala. During the reign of Kharavela, the third king of Mahameghavahana dynasty, South Kosala became an integral part of the kingdom. He patronised Jainism, but did not discriminate against other religions. He is known by his Hathigumpha inscription.
Tourism in Odisha is one of the main contributors to the economy of Odisha, India, with a 500 km (310 mi) long coastline, mountains, lakes, natural biodiversity and rivers. Odisha is a major tourist destination in India, with various tourist attractions, including wildlife reserves, beaches, temples, monuments, the arts and festivals. Other than wildlife reserves, beaches, temples, monuments, the arts and festivals, the Odisha Tourism Development Corporation, a public sector undertaking of the Government of Odisha, is also developing the tourism sector of Odisha and India.
Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra was an archaeologist and scholar on Odia Studies. He served as curator for archaeology at the Odisha State Museum from 1963 to 1989 and made significant contributions to historical research, especially in the fields of archaeology, art history, religion, and other aspects of Odia cultural history.
Muchhal Mahavir temple is a Jain temple dedicated to Lord Mahavir, at Ghanerao, in Pali district in Rajasthan state in India. The place is on the route from Falna to Kumbhalgarh. The fair is held here every year on the thirteenth day of the month of Chaitra.
Yameshwar or Jameshwar Temple is a very old temple dedicated to Shiva being worshiped by Yama. It is situated in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India, near Bharati Matha, in Jameshwar Patna.
Digambara Jaina Temple is a Jain temple in Bhubaneswar, in the state of Odisha, India. The temple is on the top of Khandagiri hill. This hill is honeycombed with a series of rock-cut Jaina caves, commissioned by King Kharavela in the 1st century BCE. The rock-cut caves are protected by Archaeological Survey of India. The enshrining deities are a series of Jaina tirthankara images.
Mirpur Jain Temple is situated in Mirpur, a fortified village in the Sirohi district of Rajasthan, India. The village has four Jain temples.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishya Kshetra Mandir, Sanghiji is an ancient Jain Temple in Sanganer, Rajasthan made of red stone. The ancient Shri Digamber Jain temple of Sanganer is 16 km from Jaipur.
The Somavamshi or Keshari dynasty ruled parts of present-day Odisha in eastern India between the 9th and the 12th centuries. Their capitals included Yayatinagara and Abhinava-Yayatinagara.
The Son Bhandar Caves are two man-made caves carved into the base of the Vaibhar Hills in Rajgir in the state of Bihar in India. Based on the dedicatory inscription found in the largest cave — which uses Gupta script of the 4th century CE — the caves are generally dated to the 3rd or 4th century CE, although some authors have suggested the caves could actually go back to the period of the Maurya Empire, possibly as early as 319 BCE. The main cave is rectangular with a trapezoidal entrance and a vaulted ceiling, reminiscent of the structure of the earlier Barabar Caves. The quality of the polish and the finish are nevertheless much inferior to that of the Barabar Caves. The stone of Son Bhandar is also much less hard than the granite of the Barabar caves, and therefore did not require the same degree of effort and technique.
↑ Gupta 2008, p.85. "The taut posture and location at the entrance of the cave (Rani Gumpha) suggest that the male figure is a guard or dvarapala. The aggressive stance of the figure and its western dress (short kilt and boots) indicates that the sculpture may be that of a Yavana, foreigner from the Graeco-Roman world."
Gupta, Sunil (2008), Early Sculptural Art in the Indian Coastlands: A Study in Cultural Transmission and Syncretism (300 BCE-CE 500), D K Printworld, ISBN978-812460438-0
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