JoséVictoriano Huerta Márquez (Spanish pronunciation:[biktoˈɾjano ˈweɾta];22 December 1854[lower-alpha 1] –13 January 1916) was a general in the Mexican Federal Army and 39th President of Mexico,who came to power by coup against the democratically-elected government of Francisco I. Madero with the aid of other Mexican generals and the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico. His violent seizure of power set off a new wave of armed conflict in the Mexican Revolution.
After a military career under President Porfirio Díaz and Interim President Francisco León de la Barra,Huerta became a high-ranking officer during the presidency of Madero during the first phase of the Mexican Revolution (1911-13). In February 1913 Huerta joined a conspiracy against Madero,who entrusted him to control a revolt in Mexico City. The Ten Tragic Days - actually fifteen days - saw the forced resignation of Madero and his vice president and their murders. The coup was backed by the nascent German Empire as well the United States under the Taft Administration. But the succeeding Wilson administration refused to recognize the new regime which had come to power by coup. The U.S. allowed arms sales to rebel forces. Many foreign powers did recognize the regime,including Britain and Germany,but withdrew further support when revolutionary forces started to show military success against the regime;their continuing support of him threatened their own relationships with the U.S. government. Huerta's government resisted the U.S. incursion into the port of Veracruz that violated Mexico's sovereignty. Even Huerta's opponents agreed with his stance. The Constitutionalist Army,the forces of the northern coalition opposing Huerta,defeated the Federal Army. Huerta was forced to resign in July 1914 and flee the country to Spain,[1] only 17 months into his presidency,after the Federal Army collapsed. While attempting to intrigue with German spies in the U.S. during World War I,Huerta was arrested in 1915 and died in U.S. custody.
His supporters were known as Huertistas during the Mexican Revolution. He is still vilified by modern-day Mexicans,who generally refer to him as El Chacal ("The Jackal") or El Usurpador ("The Usurper").[2]
Early life
According to the records in the books of the Parish Notary of Colotlán JoséVictoriano Huerta Márquez was born on December 22,1850 in the town of Colotlán and was baptized the next day (other sources indicate that he was born on March 23,1845 in the Agua Gorda ranch.) His parents were Jesús Huerta Córdoba,originally from Colotlán,Jalisco and María Lázara del Refugio Márquez Villalobos,originally from El Plateado,Zacatecas. His paternal grandparents were Rafael Huerta Benítez and María Isabel de la Trinidad Córdoba,the first originally from Villanueva,Zacatecas and the second from Colotlán,Jalisco and were his maternal grandparents JoséMaría Márquez and María Soledad Villalobos. He identified himself as indigenous,and both his parents are reported to have been ethnically Huichol,although his father is said to have been Mestizo.[3] Huerta learned to read and write at a school run by the local priest,making him one of the relatively few literate people in Colotlán.[4] He had decided upon a military career early on as the only way of escaping the poverty of Colotlán.[5] In 1869 he was employed by visiting Gen. Donato Guerra to serve as his personal secretary.[6] In that role he distinguished himself and,with Gen. Guerra's support,gained admission to the Mexican National Military Academy (Heroico Colegio Militar) at Chapultepec in Mexico City in 1872.[7] As a cadet,Huerta excelled at math,leading him to specialize in artillery and topography.[8]
Upon graduating from the military academy in 1877,Huerta was commissioned into the Corps of Engineers.[3] After entering the army as a lieutenant in the engineers in 1877,he was put in charge of improving the Loreto and Guadalupe forts in Puebla and the castle of Perote in Veracruz.[9] In January 1879 he was promoted to captain and assigned to the staff of the 4th Division in Guadalajara,in charge of engineering.[10] The commander of the 4th Division was Gen. Manuel González,a close associate of President Porfirio Díaz and former president of Mexico (1880–84).[10] In the interim,Huerta's career prospered thanks to the patronage of González.[11] In Mexico City,he married Emilia Águila Moya,whom he met in Veracruz,on 21 November 1880.[12] The marriage produced 11 children. The names of his children surviving him in 1916 were Jorge,María Elisa,Victor,Luz,Elena,Dagoberto,Eva and Celia.[13] Huerta participated in the "pacification campaigns" in Tepic and Sinaloa,where he distinguished himself in combat.[3] He was known for ensuring that his men always got paid,often resorting to finding the money in ruthless ways.[14] Following a complaint from the Catholic Church that Huerta had plundered a church to sell off its gold and silver to pay his men,Huerta justified his actions on the grounds that "Mexico can do without her priests,but cannot do without her soldiers".[15] On another occasion,following a complaint from a bank that he emptied out one of its branches at gunpoint to get money to pay his men,Huerta pointed out he left a receipt and would pay back the bank what he had stolen when he received the necessary funds from Mexico City.[15] Huerta then spent nine years of his military career undertaking topographic studies in the states of Puebla and Veracruz. He traveled extensively to all parts of Mexico in this position.[3] French cultural influence was very strong in 19th-century Mexico,and Huerta's hero was Napoleon.[16] He supported Gen. Díaz as the closest approximation to his Napoleonic ideal,believing that Mexico needed a "strongman" to prosper.[16]
By 1890 Huerta had reached the rank of Colonel of Engineers. From 1890 to 1895 Huerta lived in Mexico City,becoming a regular visitor to the presidential residence at Chapultepec Castle,and was seen as part of Díaz's "court".[17] Through Huerta was well liked at the Chapultepec Castle,acquiring the persona of a trim,efficient office who was stern to his subordinates while displaying a courtly,polished manner towards his superiors,he began to suffer from severe insomnia and began drinking heavily during this time.[18] In January 1895 he commanded a battalion of infantry against a rebellion in Guerrero led by Gen. Canuto Neri.[19] The rebellion was ended when Díaz brokered a deal with Neri,who surrendered in exchange for a promise to remove the unpopular state governor.[20] Huerta confirmed his reputation for ruthlessness by refusing to take prisoners and continuing to attack the followers of Neri even after Díaz had signed a ceasefire.[21] In December 1900 Huerta commanded a successful military campaign against Yaqui in Sonora.[22] During the near-genocidal campaign against the Yaqui,Huerta was more concerned with mapping out the terrain of Sonora,but at times he commanded forces in the field against the Yaqui.[22] From 12 April-8 September 1901 Huerta put down a rebellion in Guerrero,completely "pacifying" the state.[23] In May 1901 he was promoted to the rank of general.[24] In 1901-02 he suppressed a Maya' rising in Yucatán. He commanded about 500 men in his campaign against the Maya,starting in October 1901,and fought 79 different actions over the course of 39 days.[25] Huerta was then promoted to Brigadier General and awarded the Medal of Military Merit [7] In May 1902 he was promoted commander of federal army forces in Yucatán,and in October 1902 he reported to Díaz that he had "pacified" the Yucatán.[26] During the campaign in Yucatán he became increasingly dependent on alcohol to continue functioning. His health began to decline,and perhaps because of his heavy drinking he complained he could not go outside in the sunshine without wearing sunglasses,and he suffered bouts of uncontrollable nervous shaking. His decaying teeth caused him much pain.[26] In August 1903 he was appointed to head a committee tasked with reforming the uniforms of the federal army.[27] In 1907 he retired from the army on grounds of ill health,having developed cataracts while serving in the southern jungles. He then applied his technical training by taking up the position of Head of Public Works in Monterrey and planning a new street layout for the city.
On the eve of the 1910 Revolution against the long-established Díaz regime,Huerta was teaching mathematics in Mexico City. He applied successfully to rejoin the army with his former rank and was accepted. He did not play a major role in the early stages of the Revolution that led to the resignation of Díaz,although he commanded the military escort that gave Díaz safe conduct into exile in May 1911. During the interim presidency of Francisco León de la Barra following the resignation of Díaz and the election of Francisco I. Madero in November 1911,General Huerta carried out a campaign in Morelos,attempting to crush the rebellion led by Emilio Zapata. Huerta's forces burned villages supporting the rebellion and attacked their residents. These actions frustrated Madero's later attempts to placate those rebels.[28] Huerta had a record of opposing revolutionaries and intrigues with Madero's enemies. Huerta's actions in Morelos forced a break between Emiliano Zapata and Madero,who was later to rebel against Madero immediately after his November 1911 election.[29]
Despite the fact that revolutionary forces supporting Francisco I. Madero had forced Díaz's resignation,Madero ordered them demobilized and retained the Mexican Federal Army they had just defeated. Huerta pledged allegiance to President Madero,and carried out Madero's orders to crush anti-Madero revolts by rebel generals such as Pascual Orozco,who had helped topple Díaz and then rebelled against his regime. In the Orozco rebellion,Huerta saw the opportunity to eliminate revolutionary general Pancho Villa,who was also attempting to suppress the revolt. Accused of stealing a horse,Villa then faced execution by Huerta without trial. Only Madero's last minute intervention saved the life of one of his most effective generals.[29]
Orozco's rebellion was a major threat to the Madero government,since he had standing as a revolutionary and commanded significant forces. Madero sent Huerta to crush the rebellion. He had at his command troops of the Mexican Federal Army and these were joined by irregulars led by the revolutionary leader Pancho Villa,at Torreón in April 1912. Huerta offered Orozco's supporters (Orozquistas) amnesty,which might have weakened their forces already suffering from lack of money and arms. Huerta's forces defeated Orozco's at Rellano in May 1912. With that victory Huerta "had suddenly become a military hero with a national reputation."[30]
As Madero lost support and as internal and external groups plotted to remove him from the presidency,Huerta secretly joined the conspiracy. The coup d'etat that toppled Madero in February 1913,known in Mexican history as the Ten Tragic Days,was a conspiracy of Porfirio Díaz's nephew,General Félix Díaz,General Bernardo Reyes,and General Madragón. The plotters attempted to draw in Huerta in January,but Huerta waited for a better incentive to join,since Félix Díaz expected to be the successor to Madero. The first day of the coup,February 9,General Reyes died in battle and General Lauro Villar,the commander of Madero's forces in Mexico City,was wounded.[31] Madero appointed Huerta in his stead. According to historian Friedrich Katz,"It was a decision for which [Madero] would pay with his life."[29] Having secured that key position,Huerta reopened negotiations with the plotters and joined them in secret. His task was to undermine Madero militarily without betraying his own complicity and began military operations that weakened Madero's forces.[32] The United States Ambassador to Mexico,Henry Lane Wilson,[33] was an active participant in the plot to overthrow Madero. Ambassador Wilson believed that Huerta would not have staged a coup had the United States not assured them that it would recognize the new regime.[34] Following a confused few days of fighting in Mexico City between loyalist and rebel factions of the army,Huerta had Madero and vice-president JoséMaría Pino Suárez seized and briefly imprisoned on 18 February 1913 in the National Palace. The conspirators then met at the US Embassy to sign El Pacto de la Embajada (The Embassy Pact),which provided for the exile of Madero and Pino Suárez and Huerta's takeover of the Mexican government.[35]
La Mano Dura:Presidency of Mexico
Victoriano Huerta and his cabinet
To give the coup the appearance of legitimacy,Huerta had foreign ministerPedro Lascuráin assume the presidency;under the 1857 Constitution of Mexico,the foreign minister stood third in line for the presidency behind the Vice President and Attorney General;Madero's attorney general had also been ousted in the coup. Lascuráin then appointed Huerta as Secretary of the Interior,making him next in line for the presidency. After less than an hour in office (some sources say as little as 15 minutes),Lascuráin resigned,handing the presidency to Huerta. At a late-night special session of Congress surrounded by Huerta's troops,the legislators endorsed his assumption of power. Four days later Madero and Pino Suárez were taken from the National Palace to prison at night and shot by officers of the rurales (federal police),who were assumed to be acting on Huerta's orders.
The Huerta government was promptly recognized by all the western European governments,but not the government of the United States. The outgoing US administration of William Howard Taft refused to recognize the new government,as a way of pressuring Mexico to end the Chamizal border dispute in favor of the US,with the plan being to trade recognition for settling the dispute on American terms.[36] Newly inaugurated U.S. president Woodrow Wilson had a general bias in favor of liberal democracy and had distaste for Gen. Huerta,who had come to power by coup and was implicated in the murder of Madero,but was initially open to recognizing Huerta provided that he could "win" an election that would give him a democratic veneer.[37] Félix Díaz and the rest of the conservative leaders had seen Huerta as a transitional leader and pressed for early elections,which they expected to be won by Díaz on a Catholic conservative platform,and were rudely surprised when they discovered Huerta wanted to keep the presidency for himself.[38]
Huerta moved quickly to consolidate power within Mexico with the support of state governors.[39] Huerta sought support from Pascual Orozco,whose rebellion against Madero Huerta had been in charge of suppressing. Orozco still held the leadership of significant forces in Chihuahua and potentially in Durango,so gaining his support was important to Huerta. Orozco had rebelled against Madero and Huerta had overthrown him,so there was the possibility of gaining his support. During a meeting of representatives of Huerta's government and Orozco's forces,Orozco laid out his terms for supporting Huerta. He sought recognition of his soldiers' service to the overthrown of Madero and pay;pensions and care of soldiers' widows and orphans,agrarian reforms,government payment of Orozquista debts that financed the campaign against Madero,and employment of Orozquistas as rurales. Huerta agreed to the terms,and Orozco threw his support to Huerta on 27 February 1913.[40] Orozco sought to persuade Emiliano Zapata to make peace with Huerta regime. Zapata had held Orozco in high esteem as a fellow revolutionary who had rejected the Madero regime. However,for Zapata,Orozco's support of Huerta was anathema,saying "Huerta represents the defection of the army. You represent the defection of the Revolution."[41]
Huerta attempted to build further support for his government,and the urban working class in Mexico City made important gains before being suppressed. In particular,the leftist Casa del Obrero Mundial (House of the World Worker). The Casa organized demonstrations and strikes,which the Huerta regime initially tolerated. But then the government cracked down,arresting and deporting some leaders,and destroying the Casa's headquarters.[42] Huerta also sought to diffuse agrarian agitation,which fueled the rebellion in Morelos led by Emiliano Zapata. The most vocal intellectual in favor of land reform was Andrés Molina Enríquez,whose 1909 publication Los grandes problemas nacionales (The Great National Problems) focused on inequality of land tenure. Molina Enríquez joined the Huerta government heading the Department of Labor. He had denounced the overthrow of Madero,but "initially saw in the Huerta regime the political formula he believed Mexico required:a strong military leader capable of imposing the social reforms Mexico needed to benefit the masses." However,despite internal support in the Huerta regime for reform,Huerta increasingly embraced militarization and Molina Enríquez resigned.[43]
Venustiano Carranza disavows Victoriano Huerta's claim to the presidency
Chihuahua Gov. Abraham González refused and Huerta had him arrested and murdered in March 1913. The most important challenge from a state governor was by Venustiano Carranza,governor of Coahuila,who drafted the Plan of Guadalupe,calling for the creation of a Constitutionalist Army (evoking the 1857 Liberal Constitution) to oust the usurper Huerta and restore constitutional government. Supporters of Carranza's plan included Emiliano Zapata,who nonetheless remained loyal to his own Plan de Ayala;northern revolutionary Francisco "Pancho" Villa;and Álvaro Obregón. However,former revolutionary Gen. Pascual Orozco,whom Huerta fought when serving President Madero,now joined with Huerta as a counter-revolutionary. Four Deputies were executed over the summer of 1913 for criticizing the Huerta regime.[44] One deputy was arrested by Mexico City police as he was delivering a speech denouncing Huerta at a rally and taken out to the countryside,where he was "shot while trying to escape".[45] Lacking popular legitimacy,Huerta chose to turn the refusal of the US to recognize his government as an example of American "interference" in Mexico's internal affairs,organizing anti-American demonstrations in the summer of 1913 with the hope of gaining some popular support.[46]
British historian Alan Knight wrote about Huerta:"The consistent thread which ran through the Huerta regime,from start to finish,was militarisation:the growth and reliance on the Federal Army,the military takeover of public offices,the preference for military over political solutions,the militarisation of society in general".[47] Huerta "came very close to converting Mexico into the most completely militaristic state in the world."[48] Huerta's stated goal was a return to the "order" of the Porfiriato,but his methods were unlike those of Diaz,who had shown a talent for compromise and diplomacy;seeking support from and playing off regional elites,using not only army officers but also technocrats,former guerrilla leaders,caciques and provincial elites to support his regime.[49] By contrast,Huerta relied entirely upon the army for support,giving officers all of the key jobs,regardless of their talents,as Huerta sought to rule with La Mano Dura ("The Iron Hand"),believing only in military solutions to all problems.[50] For this reason,Huerta during his short time as President was the object of far more hatred than Diaz ever was;even the Zapatistas had a certain respect for Diaz as a patriarchal leader who had enough sense to finally leave with dignity in 1911,whereas Huerta was seen as a thuggish soldier who had Madero murdered and sought to terrorize the nation into submission.[49] Huerta disliked cabinet meetings,ordered his ministers about as if they were non-commissioned officers and displayed in general a highly autocratic style.[38]
Huerta established a harsh military dictatorship.[51]U.S. President Woodrow Wilson became hostile to the Huerta administration,recalled ambassador Henry Lane Wilson and demanded Huerta step aside for democratic elections. In August 1913 Wilson imposed an arms embargo on Mexico,forcing Huerta to turn to Europe and Japan to buy arms.[52] Reflecting the general disenchantment with Huerta's "iron hand" policies,a prominent conservative,Sen. Belisario Domínguez of Chiapas,handed out copies of a speech he did not dare to deliver in the Senate,accusing Huerta of starting the civil war which he was losing,of wanting "to cover the land with corpses . . . rather than abandon power" and called for Congress to impeach Huerta before Mexico was plunged into the abyss.[53] Domínguez knew he was risking his life by speaking out and sent his wife and children out of Mexico before handing out copies of his speech.[54] Domínguez was arrested by two policemen plus Huerta's son and son-in-law,taken to a cemetery where he was "shot while trying to escape" for speaking out against the President. His body was dumped into the grave that his killers had already dug for him.[55] On 10 October 1913,when Congress announced it was opening an investigation of the disappearance of Sen. Domínguez,who had last been seen several days before being forced into a police car,Huerta sent his soldiers in to shut down Congress in session and arrested 110 Senators and Deputies,of whom 74 were charged with high treason and put to work building a bullfighting arena.[56]
The Federal Army Huerta took over in February 1913 on paper numbered between 45,000-50,000 men. Huerta continued to increase the strength of the army,issuing a degree for conscripting 150,000 men in October 1913;another degree for conscripting 200,000 men in January 1914 and one for a quarter of million men in March 1914. These figures were never achieved as many men fled to fight for the Constitutionalists rather than Huerta.[57] Together with an increase in the number of the paramilitary rurales mounted police force and the state militias,Huerta had approximately 300,000 men,or about 4% of the population,fighting for him by early 1914.[58] Faced with Mexicans' widespread reluctance to serve,Huerta had to resort to the leva,as vagrants,criminals,captured rebels,political prisoners and sometimes just men on the streets were rounded up to serve in the Federal Army.[59] In Veracruz workers getting off the night shift at factories were rounded up in a leva (forced conscription),while in Mexico City poor men going to hospitals were rounded up in the leva.[60] As Indians were felt to be particularly docile and submissive to whites,the leva was applied especially heavily in the southern Mexico,where the majority of the people were indigenous. Thousands of Juchiteco and Maya were rounded up to fight a war in the north of Mexico that they felt did not concern them.[61] A visitor to Mérida,Yucatán wrote of "heart-breaking" scenes as hundreds of Maya said goodbye to their wives as they were forced to board a train while in chains.[62]
The men rounded up in the leva proved to be poor soldiers,prone to desertion and mutiny,since they were serving against their will and felt hatred for their commanding officers. Officers mistreated both their enlisted men and the common people.[63] Huerta had to follow a defensive strategy of keeping the army concentrated in large towns,since his soldiers in the field would either desert or go over to the rebels.[64] Throughout the civil war of 1913-14 the Constitutionalists fought with a ferocity and courage that the federal army never managed.[65] In Yucatán about 70% of the army were men conscripted from the prisons,while one "volunteer" battalion consisted of captured Yaqui.[65] In October 1913,in the town of Tlalnepantla,the army's 9th Regiment,which was said to have been "crazed with alcohol and marijuana",mutinied,murdered their officers and went over to the rebels.[66]
To secure volunteers,Huerta attempted to use Mexican nationalism and anti-Americanism. In the fall of 1913,running spurious stories in the press warning of an imminent U.S. invasion and asking for patriotic men to step up to defend Mexico.[67] The campaign attracted some volunteers from the lower middle class,through they were usually disillusioned when they learned that they were going to fight other Mexicans,not the Americans.[68] In rural Mexico a sense of Mexican nationalism barely existed at this time among the campesinos. Mexico was an abstract entity that meant nothing,and most peasants were primarily loyal to their own villages,the patria chicas.[69] Huerta's patriotic campaign was a complete failure in the countryside.[68] The other source of volunteers was to allow wealthy landlords to raise private armies under the guise of the state militias,but few peons wanted to fight,let alone die,for Gen. Huerta,since some Constitutionalists were promising land reform,although not First Chief Venustiano Carranza.[70]
When Huerta refused to call elections,and with the situation further exacerbated by the Tampico Affair,President Wilson landed US troops to occupy Mexico's most important seaport,Veracruz.
After the Federal Army was repeatedly defeated in battle by Constitutionalist generals Alvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa,climaxing in the Battle of Zacatecas,Huerta bowed to internal and external pressure and resigned the presidency on 15 July 1914.[71]
Exile,late life and death
JoséC. Delgado,Victoriano Huerta and Abraham F. Ratner.
Huerta went into exile,first traveling to Kingston,Jamaica,aboard the German cruiser SMS Dresden.[72] From there he moved to the United Kingdom,then Spain,finally arriving in the United States in April 1915.
While in the US he negotiated with Capt. Franz von Rintelen of German Navy Intelligence for money to purchase weapons and arrange U-boat landings to provide support,while offering (perhaps as a bargaining chip) to make war on the US,which Germany hoped would end munitions supplies to the Allies.[73] Their meetings,held at the Manhattan Hotel (as well as another New York hotel,"probably the Holland House" at Fifth Avenue and 30th Street),[74] were observed by Secret Servicemen,and von Rintelen's telephone conversations were routinely intercepted and recorded.[74]
Huerta traveled from New York by train to Newman,New Mexico (25 miles from the border),where he was to be met by Gen. Pascual Orozco and some well-armed Mexican supporters. However,a US Army colonel with 25 soldiers and two deputy US marshals intervened and arrested him as he left the train,on a charge of sedition.[75] The German-initiated plan for Huerta to regain the Mexican presidency through a coup d'état was foiled. After some time in a US Army prison at Fort Bliss he was released on bail,but remained under house arrest due to risk of flight to Mexico. A day after,he attended a dinner at Fort Bliss. Later he was returned to jail,and while so confined died,perhaps of cirrhosis of the liver or possibly of cancer.[76] While the main symptom was yellow jaundice,poisoning by the US was widely suspected.[77]
Legacy
In the historiography of Mexico,Victoriano Huerta is the "demon" of the Mexican Revolution,against whom all others are measured.[78] Diverse factions and interests in Mexico came together against the Huerta regime,including the Zapatistas in Morelos and the Constitutionalists in northern Mexico under Venustiano Carranza. Once Huerta was ousted,the loose coalition fell apart and Mexico was plunged into a civil war between the winners. Germany's backing of Huerta weakened their influence in Mexico while the hostility of the United States to the regime increased it. Although U.S. business interests had hoped that President Wilson would recognize the Huerta government,they realized he would not and began aligning themselves with different revolutionary factions.[79] One historian argues that Huerta's regime was not as conservative or reactionary as portrayed,arguing that he did not attempt to "reincarnate" the Age of Díaz. "Huerta and his advisors both realized the days of Díaz were gone forever. They did not attempt to stem the new energies and forces unleashed in 1910;rather they attempted to moderate them."[80] In general,however,his regime is seen as a repudiation of democracy and Huerta himself an iron-fisted authoritarian. Despite efforts in Mexico to redress the exclusion of Andrés Molina Enríquez from the pantheon of Mexican revolutionaries,since he is considered the intellectual father of the Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico empowering the state to implement land reform and expropriate private owners of resources like oil. Molina Enríquez was tainted by his service in the Huerta government.[81]
In the novel The Friends of Pancho Villa (1996),by James Carlos Blake,Huerta is a major character.
Both Victoriano Huerta and Pancho Villa are referenced in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008),when Indiana (Harrison Ford) is recalling events in his childhood to his yet-to-be revealed son (Shia LaBeouf):"It was a fight against Victoriano Huerta". He then spits on the ground to show disgust at the name.
Caballero, Raymond (2017). Orozco: Life and Death of a Mexican Revolutionary. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Caballero, Raymond (2020). Pascual Orozco, ¿Héroe y traidor?. México, D.F.: Siglo XXI Editores.
Caballero, Raymond (2015). Lynching Pascual Orozco, Mexican Revolutionary Hero and Paradox. Create Space. ISBN978-1514382509.
Katz Friedrich. The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1981.
Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution. 2 vols. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1990.
Meyer, Michael C. Huerta: A Political Portrait. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1972.
Richmond, Douglas W. "Victoriano Huerta" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1, pp.655–658. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
Notes
↑ There is dispute about the date of birth and the maternal surname of Victoriano Huerta. Many sources, including Gobernantes de México by Fernando Orozco Linares give a birthdate of 23 March 1854 and a maternal surname of Ortega. However, the parish register of Colotlán, Jalisco as filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah on film 0443681 v. 24 p. 237 shows a baptism date of 23 December 1850, a birth date of 22 December 1850 and his mother's name as María Lázara del Refugio Márquez. The marriage record dated 21 November 1880 at Santa Veracruz parrish in Mexico City as filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah on film 0035853 confirms his mother's name as: Del Refugio Márquez.
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The Mexican Revolution was a major revolution that was not a unified struggle, but an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history." It destroyed the Federal Army and replaced it with a revolutionary army, transformed Mexican culture, and the government. It also resulted in a new constitution that incorporated goals for which the revolutionaries fought. The northern Constitutionalist faction prevailed on the field of battle and aimed to create a strong central government, with revolutionary generals holding power from 1920-1940. The revolutionary conflict was primarily a civil war, but foreign powers, having important economic and strategic interests in Mexico, figured in the outcome of Mexico's power struggles. The United States played an especially significant role.
Pascual Orozco Vázquez, Jr. was a Mexican revolutionary leader who rose up to support Francisco I. Madero in late 1910 to depose long-time president Porfirio Díaz (1876-1911). Orozco was a natural military leader whose victory over the Federal Army at Ciudad Juárez was a key factor in forcing Díaz to resign in May 1911. Following Díaz's resignation and the democratic election of Madero in November 1911, served Madero as leader of the state militia in Chihuahua, a paltry reward for his service in the Mexican Revolution. Orozco revolted against the Madero government 16 months later, issuing the Plan Orozquista in March 1912. It was a serious revolt which the Federal Army struggled to suppress. When Victoriano Huerta led a coup d'état against Madero in February 1913 during which Madero was murdered, Orozco joined the Huerta regime. Orozco's revolt against Madero somewhat tarnished his revolutionary reputation, but his subsequent support of Huerta compounded the repugnance against him.
José Venustiano Carranza de la Garza was a wealthy Mexican land owner and politician who was Governor of Coahuila when the constitutionally-elected president Francisco I. Madero was overthrown in a February 1913 rightwing military coup. Known as the Primer Jefe or "First Chief" of the Constitutionalist faction in the Mexican Revolution, Carranza was a shrewd civilian politician. He supported Madero's challenge to the Díaz regime in the 1910 elections, but became a critic of Madero once Díaz was overthrown in May 1911. Madero did appoint him the governor of Coahuila. When Madero was murdered during the February 1913 counter-revolutionary coup, Carranza drew up the Plan of Guadalupe, a purely political plan to oust Madero's successor, General Victoriano Huerta. As a sitting governor when Madero was overthrown, Carranza held legitimate power and he became the leader of the northern coalition opposed to Huerta. The Constitutionalist faction was victorious and Huerta ousted in July 1914. Carranza did not assume the title of provisional president of Mexico, as called for in his Plan of Guadalupe, since it would have prevented his running for constitutional president once elections were held. His government in this period was in a preconstitutional, extralegal state, to which both his best generals, Álvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa objected. The factions of the coalition against Huerta fell apart and a bloody civil war of the winners ensued, with Obregón remaining loyal to Carranza and Villa, now allied with peasant leader Emiliano Zapata, breaking with him. The Constitutionalist Army under Obregón defeated Villa in the north, and Zapata and the peasant army of Morelos returned to guerrilla warfare. Carranza's position was secure enough politically and militarily to take power in Mexico City, although Zapata and Pancho Villa remained threats. Carranza consolidated enough power in the capital that he called a constitutional convention in 1916 to revise the 1857 liberal constitution. The Constitutionalist faction had fought to defend it and return Mexico to constitutional rule. With the promulgation of a new revolutionary Mexican Constitution of 1917, he was elected president, serving from 1917 to 1920.
Álvaro Obregón Salido better known as Álvaro Obregón was a Sonoran-born general in the Mexican Revolution. A pragmatic centrist, natural soldier, and able politician, he became the 46th President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924 and assassinated in 1928 as President-elect. In the mythology of the Revolution, "Alvaro Obregón stood out as the organizer, the peacemaker, the unifier."
Gustavo Adolfo Madero González, born in Parras de la Fuente, Coahuila, Mexico, was a participant in the Mexican Revolution against Porfirio Díaz along with other members of his wealthy family. He was also known as "Ojo Parado" since he had one glass eye.
The Plan of Ayala was a document drafted by revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata during the Mexican Revolution. In it, Zapata denounced President Francisco I. Madero for his perceived betrayal of the revolutionary ideals, embodied in Madero's Plan de San Luis Potosí, and set out his vision of land reform. The Plan was first proclaimed on November 28, 1911 in the town of Ayala, Morelos, and was later amended on June 19, 1914. The Plan of Ayala was a key document during the revolution and influenced land reform in Mexico during the 1920s and 1930s. It was the fundamental text of the Zapatistas.
The Liberation Army of the South was a guerrilla force led for most of its existence by Emiliano Zapata that took part in the Mexican Revolution from 1911 to 1920. During that time, the Zapatistas fought against the national governments of Porfirio Díaz, Francisco Madero, Victoriano Huerta, and Venustiano Carranza. Their goal was rural land reform, specifically reclaiming communal lands stolen by hacendados in the period before the revolution. Although rarely active outside their base in Morelos, they allied with Pancho Villa to support the Conventionists against the Carrancistas. After Villa's defeat, the Zapatistas remained in open rebellion. It was only after Zapata's 1919 assassination and the overthrow of the Carranza government that Zapata's successor, Gildardo Magaña, negotiated peace with President Álvaro Obregón.
The Constitutional Army was the army that fought against the Federal Army, and later, against the Villistas and Zapatistas during the Mexican Revolution. It was formed in March 1913 by Venustiano Carranza, so-called "First-Chief" of the army, as a response to the murder of President Francisco I. Madero and Vice President José María Pino Suárez by Victoriano Huerta during La Decena Trágica of 1913, and the resulting usurpation of presidential power by Huerta.
The Mexican Federal Army, also known as the Federales in popular culture, was the military of the Mexican state during the Porfiriato, the long rule of President Porfirio Díaz, and until 1914. Under President Díaz, a military hero against the French Intervention in Mexico, the Federal Army was composed of senior officers who had served in long ago conflicts. At the time of the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution most were old men and incapable of leading men on the battlefield. When the rebellions broke out against Díaz following fraudulent elections of 1910, the Federal Army was incapable of responding. Although revolutionary fighters helped bring Francisco I. Madero to power, Madero retained the Federal Army rather than the revolutionaries. Madero used the Federal Army to suppress rebellions against his government by Pascual Orozco and Emiliano Zapata. Madero placed General Victoriano Huerta as interim commander of the military during the Ten Tragic Days of February 1913 to defend his government. Huerta changed sides and ousted Madero's government. Rebellions broke out against Huerta's regime. When revolutionary armies succeeded in ousting Huerta in July 1914, the Federal Army ceased to exist as an entity, with the signing of the Teoloyucan Treaties.
The United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution was varied and seemingly contradictory, first supporting and then repudiating Mexican regimes during the period 1910–1920. For both economic and political reasons, the U.S. government generally supported those who occupied the seats of power, but could withhold official recognition. The U.S. supported the regime of Porfirio Díaz after initially withholding recognition since he came to power by coup. In 1909, Díaz and U.S. President Taft met in Ciudad Juárez, across the border from El Paso, Texas. Prior to Woodrow Wilson's inauguration on March 4, 1913, the U.S. Government focused on just warning the Mexican military that decisive action from the U.S. military would take place if lives and property of U.S. nationals living in the country were endangered. President William Howard Taft sent more troops to the US-Mexico border but did not allow them to intervene directly in the conflict, a move which Congress opposed. Twice during the Revolution, the U.S. sent troops into Mexico, to occupy Veracruz in 1914 and to northern Mexico in 1916 in a failed attempt to capture Pancho Villa. Although U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America was to assume the region was the sphere of influence of the U.S., articulated in the Monroe Doctrine and in Theodore Roosevelt's corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which asserted the right of the U.S. to intervene militarily in the region to restore order if in the U.S. view a nation could not or would not do it itself, the U.S. role in the Mexican Revolution has been exaggerated. It did not directly intervene in the Mexican Revolution in a sustained manner.
The Second Battle of Rellano of 22 May 1912 was an engagement of the Mexican Revolution between rebel forces under Pascual Orozco and government troops under General Victoriano Huerta, at the railroad station of Rellano, Chihuahua. The battle was a setback for Orozco, who had defeated another government army at the First Battle of Rellano in March of the same year.
José Inés Salazar was a leading Orozquista General in the Mexican Revolution who later fought with Pancho Villa. He was a native of Casas Grandes, Chihuahua.
Juan Andreu Almazán was a Mexican revolutionary general, politician and businessman. He held high posts in the Mexican Army in the 1920s and ran for the presidency of Mexico in 1940 in a highly disputed election, having accumulated great wealth from construction. General Almazán became one of Mexico's wealthiest citizens in the early 1940s.
The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was a peace treaty signed between the President of Mexico, Porfirio Díaz, and the revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21, 1911. The treaty put an end to the fighting between forces supporting Madero and those of Díaz and thus concluded the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution.
Pablo González Garza was a Mexican General during the Mexican Revolution. He is considered to be the main organizer of the assassination of Emiliano Zapata.
The Plan Orozquista was issued by Mexican revolutionary General Pascual Orozco on 25 March 1912. It is sometimes called the Plan of the Empacadora, since it was signed in a cotton factory. In it, Orozco repudiated the government of Francisco I. Madero, which he charged had betrayed the Mexican Revolution.
References
↑ John Eisenhower, “Intervention!: The United States and the Mexican Revolution, 1913–1917” 1993, p150
↑ McCartney, Laton. The Teapot Dome Scandal: How Big Oil Bought the Harding White House and Tried to Steal the Country, Random House, Inc., 2008, p. 1901.
1 2 3 4 Richmond, Douglas W. "Victoriano Huerta" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1, p. 655, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
↑ Rausch, George "The Early Career of Victoriano Huerta" pages 136-145 from The Americas, Volume 21, No. 2 October 1964 page 136.
↑ Rausch, "The Early Career of Victoriano Huerta" p. 136.
↑ Rausch, "The Early Career of Victoriano Huerta" p.136.
1 2 Coerver, Don M. (2004). Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN1-57607-132-4.
↑ Rausch, "The Early Career of Victoriano Huerta" p.137.
↑ Rausch, Georgre "The Early Career of Victoriano Huerta". The Americas, Volume 21, No. 2 October 1964 p. 137.
1 2 Rausch, "The Early Career of Victoriano Huerta" pp. 136-145
↑ Rausch, "The Early Career of Victoriano Huerta", pp. 136-45.
17 - "Temporada de Zopilotes" (Buzzard's Season) Paco Ignacio Taibo II, Editorial Planeta, 2000 ISBN978-6070701160. Narrative of the Decena Tragica (The tragic 10 days)
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