Indo-Caribbeans

Last updated
Indo-Caribbean people
Flag of India.svg Flag of CARICOM.svg
Total population
c. 1.5 million
Regions with significant populations
Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg  Trinidad and Tobago 468,524
(a plurality of the population) [1]
Flag of Guyana.svg  Guyana 297,493
(a plurality of the population) [2] = [3]
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands 200,000
(Indo-Caribbeans in the Netherlands) [4]
Flag of Suriname.svg  Suriname 148,443
(a plurality of the population)
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 100,000
(Indo-Caribbean Canadians) [3]
Flag-of-Martinique.svg  Martinique 36,123 [5]
Flag of France.svg  Guadeloupe 35,617 [6]
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 25,000
(British Indo-Caribbeans) [3]
Flag of Jamaica.svg  Jamaica 21,584 [7]
Flag of France.svg  French Guiana 12,000
Flag of Belize.svg  Belize 7,600
Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 5,900
Flag of Saint Lucia.svg  Saint Lucia 5,200
Flag of Puerto Rico.svg  Puerto Rico 4,100
Flag of Barbados.svg  Barbados 4,000
Flag of Grenada.svg  Grenada 3,900
Flag of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg  Saint Kitts and Nevis 1,500
Flag of the Cayman Islands.svg  Cayman Islands 1,437 [8]
Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg  British Virgin Islands 1,100
Flag of the United States Virgin Islands.svg  U.S. Virgin Islands 1,000
Flag of Haiti.svg  Haiti 580 [9]
Flag of the Bahamas.svg  Bahamas 300 [10]
Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg  Dominican Republic 54 [11]
Languages
Colonial Languages:
Indian Languages:
Languages spoken by more recent immigrants:
Religion
Majority:
Significant Minority:
Other Minority:
Related ethnic groups

Indo-Caribbeans or Indian-Caribbeans are people in the Caribbean who are descendants of the Jahaji indentured laborers from India and the wider subcontinent, who were brought by the British, Dutch, and French during the colonial era from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century. A minority of them are descendants from people who immigrated as entrepreneurs, businesspeople, merchants, engineers, doctors, religious leaders and other professional occupations beginning in the mid-20th century.

Contents

Most Indo-Caribbean people live in the English-speaking Caribbean nations, the Dutch-speaking Suriname and the French overseas departments of Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guiana, with smaller numbers in other Caribbean countries and, following further migration, in North America and Europe.

Indo-Caribbean people may also be referred to as Caribbean Indians, East Indian West Indians , [lower-alpha 1] Caribbean Hindustanis, South Asian Caribbeans, [19] or Caribbean Desis, [20] while first-generation Indo-Caribbeans were called Girmitya , Desi , Hindustani , Kantraki, Mulki (m.) / Mulkin (f.), [21] or Jahaji (m.) / Jahajin (f.). Coolie , meaning hired laborer, was used in the plantation society of the late 19th to early 20th century, however in the present-day it is considered a derogatory way to refer to Indo-Caribbeans and is considered a pejorative. [22]

Sub-groups

Bold highlights major Indo-Caribbean subgroups
Caribbean Islands

Mainland Caribbean

Primary Indo-Caribbean Diaspora

Secondary/Migrant Workers Indo-Caribbean Diaspora

Mixed Ethnicities of Partial Indo-Caribbean origin

Migration history

Indo-Caribbeans in the 19th century celebrating the Indian culture in West Indies through dance and music. East Indian Coolies in Trinidad - Project Gutenberg eText 16035.jpg
Indo-Caribbeans in the 19th century celebrating the Indian culture in West Indies through dance and music.

From 1838 to 1917, over half a million Indians from the former British Raj or British India and Colonial India, were taken to thirteen mainland and island nations in the Caribbean as indentured workers to address the demand for sugar cane plantation labour following the abolition of slavery.

Sugarcane plantations in the 19th century

A 19th-century lithograph by Theodore Bray showing workers harvesting sugarcane on a Caribbean plantation; on the right is the European overseer. Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 3581-33h Ingekleurde litho voorstellende de oo.jpg
A 19th-century lithograph by Theodore Bray showing workers harvesting sugarcane on a Caribbean plantation; on the right is the European overseer.

Much like cotton, sugarcane plantations motivated large-scale near-enslavement and forced migrations in the 19th and early 20th century. [23]

Following the passage of the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act, many formerly enslaved people left their enslavers. This created an economic chaos for European planters in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean. The hard work in hot, humid farms required a regular, docile and low-waged labour force, which led to the creation of the Indian indenture system. Poor economic conditions in India led to many Indians to look for sources of work. In this system, Indians were taken to British, French and Dutch colonies around the world, including in the Caribbean, to work on cash crop plantations. [24] [23]

The first ships carrying indentured labourers for sugarcane plantations left India in 1838 for the Caribbean region. In fact, the first two shiploads of Indians arrived in British Guiana (modern-day Guyana) on May 5, 1838, on board the Whitby and Hesperus. These ships had sailed from Calcutta. In the early decades of the sugarcane-driven migrations, the working conditions for the indentured Indian workers were abysmal, due in large part to the lack of care among the planters.. They were confined to their estates and paid a pitiful salary. Any breach of contract brought automatic criminal penalties and imprisonment. Many of these were brought away from their homelands deceptively. Many from inland regions over a thousand kilometers from seaports were promised jobs, were not told the work they were being hired for, or that they would leave their homeland and communities. They were hustled aboard the waiting ships, unprepared for the long and arduous four-month sea journey. Charles Anderson, a special magistrate investigating these sugarcane plantations, wrote to the Colonial Secretary declaring that with few exceptions, the indentured labourers are treated with great and unjust severity; European planters enforced work in sugarcane farms so harshly, that the decaying remains of immigrants were frequently discovered in sugarcane fields. If indentured labourers protested and refused to work, they were not paid or fed by the planters. [23]

The sugarcane plantation-driven migrations led to ethnically significant presence of Indians in Caribbean. [25] In some islands and countries, these Indo-Caribbean migrants now constitute a significant proportion of the population. Sugarcane plantations and citizens of Indian origin continue to thrive in countries such as Guyana, formerly, British Guiana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Martinique, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, St. Croix, Suriname and Nevis. [23] [26] By some estimates, over 2.5 million people in the Caribbean are of Indian origin. Many have ethnically blended with migrants from other parts of the world, creating a unique syncretic culture.[ citation needed ]

Though production was centered in the Caribbean, sugarcane production played a significant role in pre-World War II global politics and population movements. France, for example, negotiated with Britain leading to Act XLVI of 1860, whereby large numbers of Indian indentured labourers were brought for sugarcane plantation work in French colonies in the Caribbean region. [27] The Caribbean colonies of the Netherlands too benefitted from the indentured laborers from India.

Arrival of Indian Women in the Caribbean

The ratio of female to male Indians coming to the Caribbean was for many years extremely low, 3:100 in 1938. The Indian government and the Colonial Office set up a quota system that dictated how many Indian women came to the Caribbean. In 1870, the quota called for 40 Indian women for every 100 Indian men, a quota that often was not met. In total, only 25% of all Indians who emigrated to the Caribbean were women. There were several reasons for fewer Indian women than men emigrating. [28]

It was more expensive for agents to recruit Indian women than men, because not many Indian women wanted to leave India. It was more socially acceptable in India for men to emigrate and seek work. Women were not encouraged to do the same. Another factor dissuading Indian women from going to the Caribbean was the invasive medical examination administered upon arrival, which involved inspection of genitals. Many women did not want to have to undergo this examination and many men would not have wanted this to happen to their wives. [28]

Additionally, the colonial powers present in the Caribbean were not initially interested in convincing Indian women to immigrate. Colonialists saw indentureship as a temporary replacement for the labor that had previously been done by enslaved African people. Their goal was to use Indian men for labor. They did not want Indian people to start families in the Caribbean, which would establish Indian culture and people as a lasting presence in the Caribbean, undermining the power of the indenture system to control all aspects of the laborer's lives and force them into subjugation. [28]

In the late 1800s, there was a change in policy. The late 1880s saw competition in the sugar industry from European beet sugar, and the colonial government knew that having a settled, immobile group of Indian people to exploit for labor would be highly profitable and advantageous in the competition to dominate the sugar industry. Encouraging Indian people to stay in the Caribbean also cut the costs required to bring Indian people back to India. As indentureships ended, the Indian men who had come to work as indentured laborers were given small parcels of land to encourage settlement. Another method of encouraging settlement was to encourage more Indian women to immigrate, since permanent settlement was no longer being discouraged by the colonial powers. [28]

Indian women who were recruited and immigrated to the Caribbean were for the most part married women joining their husbands, single women, women who had been widowed, women trying to escape poverty, and women prostitutes from the cities of Calcutta and Chennai, then called Madras. Under the indenture system, married Indian women were excused from work on the plantations and planters were required to give them medical care and rations. However, the colonial government did not recognize Hindu or Muslim marriages until the 1940s, so many married women were categorized as single and did not receive the few privileges given to married women. Married women who did not have to work in the fields took care of children and expenses. Women who worked were paid less than men. [28]

Post World War II trends

Indian indentured laborers worked for decades for meagre wages in sugar cane plantations of the Dutch East Indies. This image from Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute shows two Indo-Caribbean people walking towards the house of a Dutch engineer in a Caribbean sugar cane plantation. Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 20007183 De woning van de werktuigkundige op d.jpg
Indian indentured laborers worked for decades for meagre wages in sugar cane plantations of the Dutch East Indies. This image from Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute shows two Indo-Caribbean people walking towards the house of a Dutch engineer in a Caribbean sugar cane plantation.

The majority of the Indians living in the English-speaking Caribbean came from eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar which are mostly Hindi-speakers, while those brought to Guadeloupe and Martinique were largely from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. About twenty percent (20%) of the indentured were Tamils and Telugus particularly in Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana.

A minority emigrated from other parts of South Asia, including present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh.

Indo-Caribbeans comprise the largest ethnic group in Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, and Suriname.

They are the second largest group in Jamaica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia, Martinique and Guadeloupe.

There are also small communities in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, French Guiana, Panama, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and the Netherlands Antilles. Small groups also exist in Haiti, where they are sometimes mistakenly referred to as "mulattos".

Contemporary migration

Modern-day immigrants from India (mostly Sindhi merchants) are to be found on Saint-Martin / Sint Maarten, St. Thomas, Curaçao and other islands with duty-free commercial capabilities, where they are active in business. Other Indo-Caribbean people descend from later migrants, including Indian doctors, Gujarati businessmen and migrants from Kenya and Uganda.

Diaspora

Indo-Caribbeans have migrated to the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and to other parts of the Caribbean and Latin America

Culture

Many Caribbean islands celebrate traditional Indian festivals, such as Diwali, as shown in this Divali Nagar decorations from Trinidad and Tobago. Divalinagar.jpg
Many Caribbean islands celebrate traditional Indian festivals, such as Diwali, as shown in this Divali Nagar decorations from Trinidad and Tobago.
Temple in the Sea Waterloo Temple, Trinidad.jpg
Temple in the Sea
The 26-meter Hanuman murti in Carapichaima, a noted centre of Hindu and Indo-Trinidadian culture; it is the largest statue of Hanuman outside of India TnT Hanuman Statue 1.jpg
The 26-meter Hanuman murti in Carapichaima, a noted centre of Hindu and Indo-Trinidadian culture; it is the largest statue of Hanuman outside of India
Central Vaidic Mandir in Georgetown, Guyana Central Vaidik Mandir, Georgetown, Guyana..jpg
Central Vaidic Mandir in Georgetown, Guyana
Mosque Keizerstraat Moschee-Keizerstraat-Suriname.jpg
Mosque Keizerstraat

The indentured Indians and their descendants have actively contributed to the evolution of their adopted lands in spite of many difficulties.

Commemoration

In recent years, attempts to commemorate the Indian presence and contributions have come to fruition:

Indian Arrival Day is a holiday celebrated on May 30 in Trinidad and Tobago each year since the 1990s. It was first celebrated in Trinidad and Tobago and then other countries with significant Indian people whose ancestors came as indentured laborers. It commemorates the first arrivals from India to Trinidad and Tobago, on May 30, 1845, on the ship Fatel Razack

In 1995, Jamaica started to celebrate the arrival of Indians in Old Harbour Bay, St. Catherine Parish on May 13.

In 2003, Martinique celebrated the 150th anniversary of Indian arrival. Guadeloupe did the same in 2004. These celebrations were not the fact of just the Indian minority, but the official recognition by the French and local authorities of their integration and their wide-scale contributions in various fields including agriculture, education, and politics, and to the diversification of the culture of the Creole peoples. Thus, the noted participation of the whole multi-ethnic population of the two islands were in these events.

St. Lucia and many Caribbean countries have dedicated commemorative days to acknowledge the arrival and important contributions of their Indo-Caribbean populations. St. Lucia celebrates its Indo-Caribbean heritage on May 6. Other dates when India Arrival Day is celebrated in the Caribbean include May 5 (Guyana), May 10 (Jamaica), May 30 (Trinidad and Tobago), June 1 (St. Vincent), and June 5 (Suriname). [26]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Many Indo-Caribbeans refer to themselves as East Indian West Indians, Indo-West Indians, or East and West Indians, especially in the diaspora, and many name their businesses that cater to the community as such. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago</span>

This article is about the demography of the population of Trinidad and Tobago including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indentured servitude</span> Consensual or punitive unpaid labor

Indentured servitude is a form of labor in which a person is contracted to work without salary for a specific number of years. The contract, called an "indenture", may be entered voluntarily for purported eventual compensation or debt repayment, or imposed involuntarily as a judicial punishment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coolie</span> Offensive term for a labourer from Asia

Coolie is a pejorative term used for low-wage labourers, typically those of Indian or Chinese descent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian Arrival Day</span> Holiday

Indian Arrival Day is a holiday celebrated on various days in the nations of the Caribbean, Fiji, South Africa and Mauritius, commemorating the arrival of people from the Indian subcontinent to their respective nations as indentured labours brought by European colonial authorities and their agents. In Guyana, Mauritius, Fiji and Trinidad and Tobago, where it started, it is an official public holiday.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hinduism in South America</span> Overview of the presence, role and impact of Hinduism in South America

Hinduism is a minority religion in South America, which is followed by even less than 1% of the total continent's population. Hinduism is found in several countries, but is strongest in the Indo-Caribbean populations of Guyana and Suriname. There are about 320,000 Hindus in South America, chiefly the descendants of Indian indentured laborers in the Guianas. There are about 185,000 Hindus in Guyana, 120,000 in Suriname, and some others in French Guiana. In Guyana and Suriname, Hindus form the second largest religion and in some regions and districts, Hindus form the majority. Though in recent times, due to influence of Hindu culture the number of Hindus converts have increased in other countries in South America, including Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela and others.

Indo-Guyanese or Indian-Guyanese, are Guyanese nationals of Indian origin who trace their ancestry to India and the wider subcontinent. They are the descendants of indentured servants and settlers who migrated from India beginning in 1838, and continuing during the British Raj.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hosay</span> Muslim Indo-Caribbean commemoration

Hosay is a Muslim Indo-Caribbean commemoration that is popularly observed in Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. In Trinidad and Tobago, multi-coloured model mausoleums or mosque-shaped model tombs known as tadjah are used to display the symbolic part of this commemoration. They are built and paraded, then ritually taken to the sea on last day of observance, and finally discarded into the water. The word tadjah derived from the Arabic word ta'zieh and signifies different cultural meanings depending on the region, time period, occasion, and religion. In Guyana, and Suriname, the festival is called Taziya or in Caribbean Hindustani tadjah in reference to these floats, arguably the most visible and decorative element of this festival.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caribbean Hindustani</span> Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Caribbean

Caribbean Hindustani is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by Indo-Caribbeans and the Indo-Caribbean diaspora. It is a koiné language mainly based on the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialects. These Hindustani dialects were the most spoken dialects by the Indians who came as immigrants to the Caribbean from Colonial India as indentured laborers. It is closely related to Fiji Hindi and the Bhojpuri-Hindustani spoken in Mauritius and South Africa.

The Indian indenture system was a system of indentured servitude, by which more than 1.6 million workers from British India were transported to labour in European colonies, as a substitute for slave labor, following the abolition of the trade in the early 19th century. The system expanded after the abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1833, in the French colonies in 1848, and in the Dutch Empire in 1863. British Indian indentureship lasted till the 1920s. This resulted in the development of a large South Asian diaspora in the Caribbean, Natal, East Africa, Réunion, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Fiji, as well as the growth of Indo-Caribbean, Indo-African, Indo-Mauritian, Indo-Fijian, Indo-Malaysian, and Indo-Singaporean populations.

Girmitiyas, also known as Jahajis, were indentured labourers from British India transported to work on plantations in Fiji, South Africa, Eastern Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Caribbean as part of the Indian indenture system.

Indo-Jamaicans are the descendants of people who came from the Indian subcontinent to Jamaica. Indians form the third largest ethnic group in Jamaica after Africans and Multiracials.

Chinese Caribbeans are people who are predominantly of Han Chinese ethnic origin living in the Caribbean. There are small but significant populations of Chinese and their descendants in all countries of the Greater Antilles. They are all part of the large Chinese diaspora known as Overseas Chinese.

Indo-Grenadians or Grenadians, who trace their roots to India, form the largest minority group in Grenada. This term is not generally recognized by Grenadians or indeed Caribbeans. They usually refer to themselves simply as Grenadian or possibly Caribbean. This group was first introduced during the second half of the 19th century when Grenada experimented with indentured labour. By the second half of the 20th century Indians were so integrated into Grenada’s society that a distinct Indian cultural identity was generally invisible. In addition, Indians were involved in every aspect of Grenadian life. Currently there are over 12,000 Grenadians of Indian and mixed-Indian descent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of the Caribbean</span> Languages of the region

The languages of the Caribbean reflect the region's diverse history and culture. There are six official languages spoken in the Caribbean:

Indo-Martiniquais are an ethnic group of Martinique, compromising approximately 10% of the population of the island. The Indo-Martiniquais are descendants of indentured labourers of the nineteenth century from India of primarily Tamil and Telugu descent as well as other Indian peoples. They are primarily most concentrated in the northern communes of Martinique, where the main plantations are located. The Indo-Martiniquais speak Antillean a French-based creole.

Indo-Vincentians are an ethnic group in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines who are mainly descendants of indentured laborers who came in the late 19th century to the early 20th century and entrepreneurs who began immigrating in the mid-20th century from the Indian subcontinent. There are about 5,900 people of Indian origin living in the country.

Indo–Saint Lucians or Indian–Saint Lucians, are Saint Lucians whose ancestry lies within the country of India, primarily from Bhojpur and Awadh regions that are in the modern-day Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand and Uttar Pradesh in Northern India. In 1859, the British began transporting indentured workers from British India to work on plantation estates in Saint Lucia, which had become a British colony in 1814. The first ship carrying 318 indentured workers from India, the Palmyra, arrived in Saint Lucia on 6 May 1859, and the last ship carrying Indian indentured workers, the Volga, arrived on 10 December 1893.

The Indian community in Saint Kitts and Nevis is made up of Indo-Kittitians, Indo-Nevisians, non-resident Indians and persons of Indian origin. Indo-Kittitians and Indo-Nevisians are nationals of Saint Kitts and Nevis whose ancestry lies within the country of India. The community originated from the Indian indentured workers brought to Saint Kitts and Nevis by the British in 1861 and 1874 respectively. By 1884, most of the community had emigrated to Caribbean nations with larger Indian populations such as Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname.

The Indian community in the United States Virgin Islands is made up of Indo-Caribbeans, Indian Americans and other persons of Indian origin. The first Indians in the United States Virgin Islands (USVI) arrived in the Danish colony of Saint Croix in June 1863 as indentured workers. However, the nearly all 325 Indians who came to Saint Croix left the island by the 1870s. Nearly two-thirds returned to India, while the others emigrated to Trinidad and Tobago. Some settled in that country, while others returned to India from Trinidad.

Caribbean Shaktism, also known as Kalimai Dharma or Madras Religion in Guyana, refers to the syncretic Shakti Kali/Mariamman worship that has evolved within the Indo-Caribbean Tamil community in countries such as Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Jamaica and Suriname. It can be found across the Caribbean and any South American country with an Indo-Caribbean community. It is a syncretic blend of Dravidian folk religion and Hinduism and has also been influenced by other cultural and religious traditions found in the Caribbean such as Catholicism, Trinidad Orisha, Comfa and Obeah. It is considered to be a form of Folk Tamil Hinduism and many attend services of Vedic Origin, more Orthodox Tamil Origin, and Madrasi origin.

References

  1. ↑ "TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 2011 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS DEMOGRAPHIC REPORT" (PDF). Guardian.co.tt. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
  2. ↑ "Final 2012 Census Compendium 2". July 2016.
  3. 1 2 3 "Indo-Caribbean Times December 2007 - Kidnapping - Venezuela". Scribd. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  4. ↑ "Suriname Indians in the Netherlands – the Indian in Them Lives on".
  5. ↑ "Statistiques ethniques". Insee.fr. Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques (INSEE). Retrieved 24 June 2022.
  6. ↑ "Guadeloupe Population 2022". World Population Review. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
  7. ↑ "The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 2017-09-25.
  8. ↑ "Ethnic Groups - Cayman Islands Headline News" (PDF). Cayman Islands Ethnic Groups. 2022-02-25. Retrieved 2022-05-25.
  9. ↑ Population of Overseas Indians mea.gov.in
  10. ↑ Foreign Relation Bahamas
  11. ↑ "Indo-Dominican Republic Relations". Indian Ministry of External Affairs.
  12. ↑ "Bedessee East West Indian Foods". New Times Broward-Palm Beach .
  13. ↑ "SILAR'S EAST AND WEST FASHIONS". Visit Fort Lauderdale.
  14. ↑ Wallace, David (24 February 1987). "TRINIDAD NATIVE'S GROCERY STORE CATERS TO HIS CUSTOMERS' CULTURES". Sun-Sentinel .
  15. ↑ "New East & West Fashion". Yellowpages.com .
  16. ↑ "D. Pokhai American East and West Indian Grocery". Chamberofcommerce.com.
  17. ↑ "Homeland East & West Indian Supermarket". Yelp .
  18. ↑ "Priyas East West Indian & Sri Lankan Grocery". Looktamil.
  19. ↑ Venkatraman, Sakshi (6 October 2021). "Brown, Desi, South Asian: Diaspora reflects on the terms that represent, erase them". NBC News .
  20. ↑ "Caribbean desis aren't feelin' the love | Sepia Mutiny".
  21. ↑ Clarke, C. (24 May 2010). Post-Colonial Trinidad: An Ethnographic Journal. Springer. ISBN   9780230106857.
  22. ↑ Gandhi, Lakshmi (25 November 2013). "A History of Indentured Labor Gives 'Coolie' Its Sting". NPR.
  23. 1 2 3 4 "Forced Labour". The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom. 2010.
  24. ↑ Hugh Tinker (1993). New System of Slavery. Hansib Publishing, London. ISBN   978-1-870518-18-5.
  25. ↑ K Laurence (1994). A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration Into Trinidad & British Guiana, 1875-1917. St Martin's Press. ISBN   978-0-312-12172-3.
  26. 1 2 "St. Lucia's Indian Arrival Day". Caribbean Repeating Islands. 2009.
  27. ↑ "Indian indentured labourers". The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom. 2010.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Roopnarine, Lomarsh (2007). Indo-Caribbean Indenture: Resistance And Accommodation, 1838-1920. Canada: University of the West Indies Press. pp. 91–96. ISBN   978-976-640-185-6.

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