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| Nationalism |
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Christian nationalism is a form of religious nationalism that focuses on promoting the Christian views of its followers, in order to achieve prominence or dominance in political, cultural, and social life. [1] [2] In countries with a state church, Christian nationalists seek to preserve the status of a Christian state. [3] Christian nationalism overlaps with white supremacy. [4] [5] : 10
In Brazil, Christian nationalism, a result of a Catholic-Evangelical coalition, has a goal of curbing the influence of "moral relativism, social liberalism, alleged neo-Marxism in its various forms, and LBGTQ rights". [6]
A 2024 Pew Research Center survey found that 13% of Brazilians self-identified as "religious nationalists". [7]
The COVID-19 pandemic saw a rise in Christian nationalist activity with many groups using anti-lockdown sentiments to expand their reach to more people. [8] The group Liberty Coalition Canada has garnered support from many elected politicians across Canada. [9] In their founding documents they argue that "it is only in Christianized nations that religious freedom has ever flourished". [10] Their rallies have attracted the support of Alex Jones and Canada First, a spin-off of Nick Fuentes' group America First. [11] Many of Liberty Coalition Canada's leaders are pastors who have racked up millions in potential fines for violating COVID protocols and in many cases express ultra-conservative views. [12]
A 2024 Pew Research Center survey found that 3% of Canadians self-identified as "religious nationalists". [7]
The far-right and pro-Russian Power Belongs to the People (VKK) party has been described as Christian nationalist by Helsingin Sanomat . [13] Sanan- ja uskonnonvapaus ry (Freedom of Speech and Religion Association), associated with MP and former chair of the Christian Democrats Päivi Räsänen, has also supported openly fascist candidates of Blue-and-Black Movement that seek to ban the LGBT movement and "non-native religions". The association also supports VKK and Freedom Alliance. [14] The Blue-and-Black movement itself is also inspired by the Christian fascist Patriotic People's Movement and its leader Tuukka Kuru is a member of the traditionalist Lutheran Mission Diocese. [15] [16] Aforementioned local far-right pro-Russian parties have recruited combatants for the Russian side in Ukraine, who have then after gone to the Russian Imperial Movement's training camps in St. Petersburg and become fighters in the Russo-Ukrainian War. [23]
The Finnish Bible Belt of Ostrobothnia has been significantly shaped by the conservative Finnish Lutheran revival and Awakenism. The area was also the place of origin of the Finnish fascist movements Lapua Movement and Patriotic People's Movement, and revivalism was a dominant force among Finnish fascists and Nazis. [24] [25] Even in the modern day, the Revivalist Lutheran Evangelical Association of Finland chooses to ordain their priests in Russian Evangelical Lutheran Church of Ingria because of its strong opposition to the LGBT movement and women in ministry. [26] [27] [28]
There has emerged a Finnish Christian nationalist media ecosystem. Neo-Nazi Nordic Resistance Movement has published Magneettimedia newspaper that Suomen Kuvalehti characterized as Christian nationalist. The newspaper and its distribution were funded by department store tycoon and holocaust denier Juha Kärkkäinen. [29] In 2013 the newspaper was circulated to some 660,000 households. [30] Theological magazine Vartija also defined as Christian nationalist the alt-tech website "Oikea Media", Patmos Mission Foundation and the television channels TV7 and AlfaTV. It further observes that "It has been noticeable that those on the extreme right, both religiously and politically, have found each other": there is an informal group of over 500 religious members of the far-right Finns Party. [31]
In Ghana, Christian nationalists seek to uphold what they see as "traditional markers of Ghanaian identity including, Christianity, social conservatism, and antagonism to 'progressive' 'Western' ideas, such as LGBTQ+ equality". [32]
A 2024 Pew Research Center survey found that 17% of Ghanaians self-identified as "religious nationalists". [7]
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| Conservatism in Hungary |
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The Kingdom of Hungary under the leadership of Miklós Horthy is often seen by many historians as Christian nationalist in nature. Historian István Deák described the Horthy regime in the following way:
Between 1919 and 1944 Hungary was a rightist country. Forged out of a counter-revolutionary heritage, its governments advocated a "nationalist Christian" policy; they extolled heroism, faith, and unity; they despised the French Revolution, and they spurned the liberal and socialist ideologies of the 19th century. The governments saw Hungary as a bulwark against bolshevism and bolshevism's instruments: socialism, cosmopolitanism, and Freemasonry. They perpetrated the rule of a small clique of aristocrats, civil servants, and army officers, and surrounded with adulation the head of the state, the counterrevolutionary Admiral Horthy. [33]
In 1944, the regency of Horthy was overthrown, and Nazi Government of National Unity led by Arrow Cross Party of Ferenc Szálasi was installed in its place. Although both Arrow Cross and established conservatives partook in "National Christian or Christian Nationalist ideology", [34] Arrow Cross' antisemitism was much more extreme, and the Government of National Unity unleashed the Holocaust in Hungary. [35] [36] [37] [38] According to researcher and Holocaust survivor Moshe Y. Herczl:
A considerable portion of the media in Hungary described the swastika as a symbol of the forces defending European Christian culture, struggling bravely against the danger of Red expansion from the east and against the Bolshevik-Jewish Weltanschauung. It served as a source of inspiration for the various cross movements, including the Arrow-Cross party. [39]
During the Holocaust, Roman Catholic priest of the Franciscan Order András Kun was the commander of an Anti-Semitic death squad for the Arrow Cross Party. [40]
Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán has often advocated for Christian nationalism, both within Hungary and as a type of international movement including Other European and American Christian nationalists. [41]
A 2024 Pew Research Center survey found that 1% of Hungarians self-identified as "religious nationalists". [7]
Robert Bakiewicz, who organizes the annual far-right nationalist Independence March attended by tens of thousands, is a member of a Traditionalist Catholic Society of Saint Pius X church. Bakiewicz is the former leader of National Radical Camp that has been described as neo-Nazi, neo-fascist and adherent of Catholic nationalism. The Law and Justice (PiS) government sponsored Bakiewicz by over 1 million euros. [42] [43] [44] [45] In 2017, Bakiewicz held a speech during the Independence March, kissing a crucifix and calling for a crusade against "cultural marxists" and for a Catholic theocracy. [46] The attendees of the Independence March used slogans such as "We want God" and "White Poland". [47]
The Christian nationalist All-Polish Youth has also been linked to neo-Nazis and caused controversy when its members were pictured saluting swastika flags. All-Polish Youth is the unofficial youth group of the neo-fascist National Movement and one of the main participants of the Independence Day march. [48] [49] [50] [51] All-Polish Youth's self-declared aim is to "to raise Polish youth in a Catholic and patriotic spirit" and it operates under the slogan "Great Catholic Poland". [52] [53] National Movement, then led by Robert Winnicki, described as an "ideological soulmate" of Bakiewicz, sponsored the November 2017 anti-Israel demonstration that was attended by 60,000 people. Algemeiner characterized the demonstration as "Ultranationalist and neo-Nazi". [54] [42]
Former Polish ruling party PiS has been described as Christian nationalist. [55] [56] [57] Under PiS, there was a near total ban on abortion, and many areas in the country were declared "LGBT-free zones". PiS allegedly facilitated co-operation between conservative institutions and far-right extremists. In 2023, the PiS affiliated fundamentalist Catholic group Ordo Iuris started a campaign for the release of a neo-Nazi activist Marika Matuszak convicted of attacking an LGBT event, and she was released by PiS Justice Minister Zbigniew Ziobro. [58] [59] Sejm member and chair of the Together Party Adrian Zandberg criticized PiS Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki for "commemorat[ing] a unit that openly collaborated with the Gestapo" for paying tribute to the Holy Cross Mountains Brigade and said Hubert Jura may be a hero to Morawiecki, but not to him. [60]
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| Conservatism in Russia |
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President of Russia Vladimir Putin has been described as a global leader of the Christian nationalist and Christian right movements. [61] As President, Putin has increased the power of the Russian Orthodox Church and proclaimed his staunch belief in Eastern Orthodoxy, [62] as well as maintaining close contacts with Patriarchs of Moscow and all Rus' Alexy II and Kirill.
The Russian Imperial Movement is a prominent neo-Nazi Christian nationalist group that trains militants all over Europe and has recruited thousands of fighters for its paramilitary group, the Imperial Legion, which is participating in the invasion of Ukraine. The group also works with the Atomwaffen Division in order to network with and recruit extremists from the United States. [63] [64]
Alexander Barkashov was a parishioner of the Russian True Orthodox Church, and the first cells of the neo-Nazi Russian National Unity were formed as brotherhoods and communities of the RTOC. [65] RNU is closely linked to the Russian Orthodox Army responsible for sectarian violence and antisemitic attacks in Donbass. [66] [67]
The extreme nationalist Russian Catacomb Church of True Orthodox Christians has canonized Russian nationalists Konstantin Voskoboinik and Bronislav Kaminski as martyrs for their anti-communist stance which caused controversy due to their collaboration with the Nazis. [68] [69]
Serbian Action is a prominent neo-Nazi Christian nationalist group in Serbia. The group adheres to the ideology of the fascist ZBOR and the Serbian Nazi collaborators Milan Nedic and Dimitrije Ljotić and Bishop Nikolaj Velimirović, an early supporter of Adolf Hitler. They also organize annual memorial events and marches for them. [70] [71] Serbian Action is also proponent of the ideology of Accelerationism and supports overthrowing the government in favor of Orthodox monarchy. Serbian Action is also affiliated with the neo-Nazi monarchist Russian Imperial Movement, Golden Dawn and the Iron March network that has been described as "terroristic". [72] [73]
The future leader of the National Party and Apartheid Prime Minister of South Africa, B. J. Vorster in 1942 declared: "We stand for Christian Nationalism which is an ally of National Socialism. You can call this anti-democratic principle dictatorship if you wish. In Italy, it is called Fascism; in Germany, National Socialism and in South Africa, Christian Nationalism." [74]
While the National Party was primarily concerned about the nationalist interest of Afrikaners, there was a strong adherence to Calvinist interpretations of Christianity as the bedrock of the state. Moreover, by advancing ideas of Christian Nationalism, the National Party could incorporate other "nations" in their programme of racial hierarchies and segregation. [75] The Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa provided much of the theological [76] and moral justification for Apartheid and the basis for racial hierarchy. [77]
A 2024 Pew Research Center survey found that 16% of South Africans self-identified as "religious nationalists". [7]
According to Bellingcat, Orthodox Church of Ukraine (OCU) and far-right Ukrainian nationalists align on some issues, including their opposition to LGBT rights. Since it was first organized in 2015, Kiev Pride has been physically attacked and intimidated by a coalition of religious and political extremist groups. Yaroslav Kulyk, a priest in the OCU, has prominently called for "patriots" to "crush" the Kiev Pride. His call has been answered by far-right extremist anti-LGBTQ online umbrella group “Tradition and Order” (Традиція і Порядок) and Karpatska Sich. Tradition and Order uses the slogan “Nation, Faith, Family”, and is formed of Christian nationalist and neo-Nazi groups, such as C14 and Brotherhood. Dmytro Korchynsky, the leader of the Christian nationalist Brotherhood described his group as "Orthodox Taleban". In demonstrating against Kiev Pride, Tradition and Order is joined by other far-right Christian anti-LGBT groups such as Katechon, National Resistance, Unknown Patriot, Sisterhood of Saint Olga, and the Interconfessional Chaplain Church. [78] [79]
Order (Орден), the so-called "conservative wing" of the "nationalist hate group" National Corps had its banners consecrated by OCU priests. Leaders of these far-right groups have posed and marched with Epiphanius I of Ukraine who has characterized LGBT ideas are “Western propaganda" and "sin". The neo-Nazi C14 also allegedly helped to physically take over the Moscow-aligned churches for the Ukrainian Autocephaly and C14 leader Yevhen Karas posed with Patriarch Filaret. [79] [78]
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According to BBC News, in 2006 the fascist British National Party had "recently stepped up its efforts to present itself as a staunch defender of Christianity", using Jesus and Bible quotes in its European Union election campaign. The same year, the BNP founded the Christian Council of Britain, led by the Reverend Robert West. [80] The founder of the BNP, John Tyndall's "linkage of Christian ideas to notions of race remained present throughout his BNP leadership years" and Tyndall's Spearhead stated that "the white race thought of itself as Christendom", and "many of us still think that today". Tyndall's successor Nick Griffin also started streaming a "Christmas message" from Iona, chosen for its importance in Celtic Christianity, in which he railed against erosion of the Christian tradition. When a list of some BNP members was leaked in November 2008, it included multiple vicars. In BNP's Identity magazine, John Maddox wrote that atheism and Islam will end the Christian civilization of Britain. He added that "the struggle is political and social as well as spiritual and theological" and that Christians should resist by voting for BNP. [81]
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| Conservatism in the United States |
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Christian nationalism asserts that the United States is a country founded by and for Christians. [82] Christian nationalists in the United States advocate "a fusion of identitarian Christian identity and cultural conservatism with American civic belonging". [1] : 3–4 It has been noted to bear overlap with Christian fundamentalism, white supremacy, [4] Christian supremacy, [83] the Seven Mountain Mandate movement, and dominionism. [1] : 5 Most researchers have described Christian nationalism as "authoritarian" and "boundary-enforcing" but recent research has focused on how libertarian, small-government ideology and neoliberal political economics have become part of the American Christian political identity. [1] : 3–4 Christian nationalism also overlaps with but is distinct from theonomy, with it being more populist in character. Theocratic Christians seek to have the Bible inform national laws and have religious leaders in positions of government; while in America, Christian nationalists view the country's founding documents as "divinely inspired" and supernaturally revealed to Christian men to preference Christianity, and are willing to elect impious heads of state if they support right-wing causes. [5] : xxi
Christian nationalism supports the presence of Christian symbols in the public square, and state patronage for the practice and display of religion, such as Christmas as a national holiday, school prayer, singing God Bless America, the exhibition of nativity scenes during Christmastide, and the Christian Cross on Good Friday. [84] [5] : 7–10 [82] During the Cold War, church attendance reached a highpoint in the 1950s, which was also when the United States added phrases like 'Under God' in the Pledge of Allegiance and on currency, described at the time as a 'civil religion' that was motivated in part to show distance from communism. [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] Christian nationalism also influenced the constitution of the Confederacy, which mentioned God overtly in contrast with the US Constitution. [90] [91]
Christian nationalism has been linked to prejudice towards minority groups. [5] : 4 Christian nationalism has been loosely defined as a belief that "celebrate[s] and privilege[s] the sacred history, liberty, and rightful rule of white conservatives". [92] : 770 Christian nationalism prioritizes an ethno-cultural, ethno-religious, and ethno-nationalist framing around fear of "the other", those being immigrants, racial, and sexual minorities. Studies have associated Christian nationalism with xenophobia, homophobia, misogyny, political tolerance of racists, opposition to interracial unions, support for gun rights, pronatalism, and restricting the civil rights of those who fail to conform to traditional ideals of whiteness, citizenship, and Protestantism. [93] : 6 The Christian nationalist belief system includes elements of patriarchy, white supremacy, nativism, and heteronormativity. [93] : 7 It has been associated with a "conquest narrative", premillennial apocalypticism, and of frequent "rhetoric of blood, specifically, of blood sacrifice to an angry God". [93] : 16
American Christian nationalism is based on a worldview that America is superior to other countries, and that such superiority is divinely established. It posits that only Christians are "true Americans". Christian nationalism also bears overlap with the American militia movement. The 1992 Ruby Ridge standoff and the 1993 Waco siege served as a catalyst for the growth of militia activity among Christian nationalists. [4] Christian nationalists believe that the US is meant to be a Christian nation, and that it was founded as a Christian nation, and want to "take back" the US for God. [94] [95]
Christian nationalists feel that their values and religion are threatened and marginalized, and fear their freedom to preach their moral values will be no longer dominant at best or outlawed at worst. [5] : 5 Experimental research found that support of Christian nationalism increased when Christian Americans were told of their demographic decline. [96] Studies have shown Christian nationalists to exhibit higher levels of anger, depression, anxiety, and emotional distress. It has been theorized that Christian nationalists fear that they are "not living up to" God's expectations, and "fear the wrath and punishment" of not creating the country desired by God. [93] : 19–20
The concept of Christian nationalism — technically, the belief that the secular government should favor Christianity or even be replaced by it — existed long before Trump's rise to power.
As against both Christian nationalists who wanted an established church and French-republican-style secular nationalists who wanted a homogenous public square devoid of religion, Dutch pluralists led by Kuyper defended a model of institutional pluralism or "sphere sovereignty".
"Johan Backman says that he continues to help Finns who have gone to Eastern Ukraine to fight. He does not feel responsible for the people he recruits." Johan Bäckman is an important central figure for Finnish fighters, who had organized their travel from Finland to the Donbas and engaged them in illegal activities there. Janus Kostia Putkonen arrived in Donbas from Moscow via Rostov, southern Russia, in March 2015.
Over the past five years Law and Justice has gradually built up support through an avowedly Christian nationalist platform that espouses family values.
RNE volunteer troops were closely linked with the Russian Orthodox army
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)The group's ideology is a hybrid of neo-Nazism and Christian nationalism.
The majority of Americans do not embrace Christian nationalism. Even so, its echoes appear everywhere from American flags in church pulpits, to the Pledge of Allegiance, to 'In God We Trust' on money, license plates and government vehicles.
Like the insertion of "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance, "In God We Trust" was made the national motto during the Cold War to pose America's civil religion against the atheistic communist faith. Hawley's assault on the left's alternative civil religion harks back to that historical moment precisely.
Judging from church-membership figures, the nineteen-fifties may have been the most pious period in American history; it was the decade when the phrase 'under God' was added to the Pledge of Allegiance (1954), and when 'In God we trust' was adopted as the country's official motto (1956). By then, politicians were talking less about heathenism and more about a new adversary; many, like Senator Joseph McCarthy, believed that America was 'engaged in a final, all-out battle between Communistic atheism and Christianity.'
