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Dependence liability | None |
Routes of administration | Oral |
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Pharmacokinetic data | |
Metabolism | Hepatic and CYP3A & CYP2B |
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CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |
ECHA InfoCard | 100.112.565 |
Chemical and physical data | |
Formula | C35H52O4 |
Molar mass | 536.797 g·mol−1 |
3D model (JSmol) | |
Melting point | 79–80 °C (174–176 °F) |
Solubility in water | 0.66 mg/mL (20 °C) |
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Hyperforin is a phytochemical produced by some of the members of the plant genus Hypericum , notably Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort). [2] Hyperforin may be involved in the pharmacological effects of St. John's wort, [2] specifically in its antidepressant effects. [3] [4] [5]
Hyperforin has only been found in significant amounts in Hypericum perforatum with other related species such as Hypericum calycinum containing lower levels of the phytochemical. [2] It accumulates in oil glands, pistils, and fruits, probably as a plant defensive compound. [6] The first natural extractions were done with ethanol and afforded a 7:1 yield of crude extract to phytochemical however, this technique produced a mixture of hyperforin and adhyperforin. [3] [7] [8] The extraction technique has since been modernized using lipophilic liquid CO2 extraction to afford a 3:1 crude to phytochemical extraction which is then further purified away from adhyperforin. [3] [7] [8] This CO2 extraction is rather tricky still because typical 'supercritical' conditions extract less material whereas anything over 40 °C (100°F) will degrade hyperforin. [3] [7] [8] Other Hypericum species contain low amounts of hyperforin. [9]
Hyperforin is a prenylated phloroglucinol derivative and is a member of the Polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinol family, also known as the PPAP family. Hyperforin is a unique PPAP because it consists of a C8 quaternary stereocenter which was a synthetic challenge unlike other PPAP synthetic targets. [3] [4] [10] The structure of hyperforin was elucidated by a research group from the Shemyakin Institute of Bio-organic Chemistry (USSR Academy of Sciences in Moscow) and published in 1975. [11] [12] A total synthesis of the non-natural hyperforin enantiomer was reported in 2010 which required approximately 50 synthetic transformations. [13] In 2010, an enantioselective total synthesis of the correct enantiomer was disclosed. The retrosynthetic analysis was inspired by hyperforin's structural symmetry and biosynthetic pathway. The synthetic route undertaken generated a prostereogenic intermediate which then established the synthetically challenging C8 stereocenter and facilitated the stereochemical outcomes for the remainder of the synthesis. [10]
Hyperforin is unstable in the presence of light and oxygen. [14] Frequent oxidized forms contain a C3 to C9 hemiketal/heterocyclic bridge or will form furan/pyran derivatives. [7] [8]
Some pharmacokinetic data on hyperforin is available for an extract containing 5% hyperforin. Maximal plasma levels (Cmax) in human volunteers were reached 3–4 hours after administration of an extract containing 14.8 mg hyperforin. Biological half-life (t1/2) and mean residence time were 9 hours and 12 hours, respectively, with an estimated steady state plasma concentration of 100 ng/mL (approx. 180 nM) for 3 doses per day. Linear plasma concentrations were observed within a normal dosage range and no accumulation occurred. [15]
In healthy male volunteers, 612 mg dry extract of St. John's wort produced hyperforin pharmacokinetics characterised by a half life of 19.64 hours. [16]
Hyperforin may be a constituent responsible for the antidepressant and anxiolytic properties of the extracts of St. John's wort. [2] [17] In vitro, it acted as a reuptake inhibitor of monoamines (MRI), including serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, and of GABA and glutamate, with IC50 values of 0.05-0.10 μg/mL for all compounds, with the exception of glutamate, which is in the 0.5 μg/mL range. [18] In other laboratory studies, hyperforin induced cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2C9 by binding to and activating the pregnane X receptor. [19]
Neurotransmitter | IC50 (nanomoles) [18] |
---|---|
Norepinephrine | 80 ± 24 |
Dopamine | 102 ± 19 |
GABA | 184 ± 41 |
5-HT | 205 ± 45 |
Glutamate | 829 ± 687 |
Choline | 8500 |
Receptor | Ki (nanomoles) |
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D1 | 595.8 [20] |
Hyperforin is a polyprenylated acylphloroglucinol (PPAP) derivative with a pholoroisobutyrophenone bicyclic core. Isobutryl-CoA (17) has been determined to be one of the initial primary metabolite starter molecules in the biosynthesis of the hyperforin core structure. Isobutryl-CoA is derived from an a-ketoisovalerate intermediate (15). The bicyclic structure suggests that it has elements of meroterpenoid origin. The nucleus of hyperforin is formed in a sequence condensation of one molecule of isobutyryl-CoA and three molecules of malonyl-CoA, both catalyzed by Isobutyrophenone synthase. Type III PKS enzymes will catalyze the decarboxylative condensation of enzyme active sites to generate scaffolding.
These enzymes preferred a different substrate and did not produce identical products. The cell-free extracts from the cell cultures were incubated with isobutyryl-CoA and malonyl-CoA, phlorisobutyrophenone was formed (18). THe enzymatic reaction was identified as BUS. PIVP is a similar function of enzyme in glandular hairs of hop cones. Two acylphloroglucinoal cores PICP and PIBP formed are formed by claisen condensation but will differ in substrate and enzyme specificities. PIVP will use isovaleryl-CoA in the presence of an enzyme VSP, and PIBP will use isobutyryl-CoA in the presence of bus resulting in the production of adhyperforin and hyperforin.
However, hyperforin is an easily degradable compound highly sensitive to heat and light in its powder form or within a solution, making it difficult to determine a true synthesis route for hyperforin making this synthesis route a possible route. [21]
Two meta-analyses of preliminary clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of St. John's wort for treating mild-to-moderate depression indicated a response similar to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and with better tolerance, although the long-term generalization of study results was limited by the short duration (4–12 weeks) of reviewed studies. [22] [23]
An anxiolytic is a medication or other intervention that reduces anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiogenic agents which increase anxiety. Anxiolytic medications are used for the treatment of anxiety disorders and their related psychological and physical symptoms.
Hypericum perforatum, commonly known as St John's wort, is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae and the type species of the genus Hypericum. It is a perennial that grows up to one meter tall, with many yellow flowers that have conspicuous black glands around their edges, long stamens, and three pistils. Probably a hybrid between close relatives H. attenuatum and H. maculatum that originated in Siberia, the species now has a cosmopolitan distribution. It is native to temperate regions across Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to East Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of North and South America. In many areas where it is not native, H. perforatum is considered a noxious weed. It densely covers open areas to the exclusion of native plants, and is poor grazing material. As such, methods for biocontrol have been introduced in an attempt to slow or reverse the spread of the species.
Citalopram, sold under the brand name Celexa among others, is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It is used to treat major depressive disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and social phobia. The antidepressant effects may take one to four weeks to occur. It is typically taken orally. In some European countries, it is sometimes given intravenously to initiate treatment, before switching to the oral route of administration for continuation of treatment. It has also been used intravenously in other parts of the world in some other circumstances.
Fluvoxamine, sold under the brand name Luvox among others, is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It is primarily used to treat major depressive disorder and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), but is also used to treat anxiety disorders such as panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Hypericum is a genus of flowering plants in the family Hypericaceae. The genus has a nearly worldwide distribution, missing only from tropical lowlands, deserts and polar regions. Many Hypericum species are regarded as invasive species and noxious weeds. All members of the genus may be referred to as St. John's wort, and some are known as goatweed. The white or pink flowered marsh St. John's worts of North America and eastern Asia are generally accepted as belonging to the separate genus TriadenumRaf.
Hypericum calycinum is a species of prostrate or low-growing shrub in the flowering plant family Hypericaceae. Widely cultivated for its large yellow flowers, its names as a garden plant include Rose-of-Sharon in Britain and Australia, and Aaron's beard, great St-John's wort, creeping St. John's wort and Jerusalem star. Grown in Mediterranean climates, widely spread in the Strandja Mountains along the Bulgarian and Turkish Black Sea coast.
Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are a class of antidepressant medications used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD), anxiety disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), social phobia, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), chronic neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), and menopausal symptoms. SNRIs are monoamine reuptake inhibitors; specifically, they inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters are thought to play an important role in mood regulation. SNRIs can be contrasted with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs), which act upon single neurotransmitters.
Hypericin is a naphthodianthrone, an anthraquinone derivative which, together with hyperforin, is one of the principal active constituents of Hypericum. Hypericin is believed to act as an antibiotic, antiviral and non-specific kinase inhibitor. Hypericin may inhibit the action of the enzyme dopamine β-hydroxylase, leading to increased dopamine levels, although thus possibly decreasing norepinephrine and epinephrine.
Dopaminergic means "related to dopamine" (literally, "working on dopamine"), dopamine being a common neurotransmitter. Dopaminergic substances or actions increase dopamine-related activity in the brain. Dopaminergic brain pathways facilitate dopamine-related activity. For example, certain proteins such as the dopamine transporter (DAT), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), and dopamine receptors can be classified as dopaminergic, and neurons that synthesize or contain dopamine and synapses with dopamine receptors in them may also be labeled as dopaminergic. Enzymes that regulate the biosynthesis or metabolism of dopamine such as aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase or DOPA decarboxylase, monoamine oxidase (MAO), and catechol O-methyl transferase (COMT) may be referred to as dopaminergic as well. Also, any endogenous or exogenous chemical substance that acts to affect dopamine receptors or dopamine release through indirect actions (for example, on neurons that synapse onto neurons that release dopamine or express dopamine receptors) can also be said to have dopaminergic effects, two prominent examples being opioids, which enhance dopamine release indirectly in the reward pathways, and some substituted amphetamines, which enhance dopamine release directly by binding to and inhibiting VMAT2.
An antileukotriene, also known as leukotriene modifier and leukotriene receptor antagonist, is a medication which functions as a leukotriene-related enzyme inhibitor or leukotriene receptor antagonist and consequently opposes the function of these inflammatory mediators; leukotrienes are produced by the immune system and serve to promote bronchoconstriction, inflammation, microvascular permeability, and mucus secretion in asthma and COPD. Leukotriene receptor antagonists are sometimes colloquially referred to as leukasts.
Transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily C, member 6, also known as TRPC6, is a human gene encoding a protein of the same name. TRPC6 is a transient receptor potential channel of the classical TRPC subfamily. It has been associated with depression and anxiety, as well as with focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS).
Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors are compounds that slow or stop the action of the arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase enzyme, which is responsible for the production of inflammatory leukotrienes. The overproduction of leukotrienes is a major cause of inflammation in asthma, allergic rhinitis, and osteoarthritis.
A reuptake inhibitor (RI) is a type of drug known as a reuptake modulator that inhibits the plasmalemmal transporter-mediated reuptake of a neurotransmitter from the synapse into the pre-synaptic neuron. This leads to an increase in extracellular concentrations of the neurotransmitter and an increase in neurotransmission. Various drugs exert their psychological and physiological effects through reuptake inhibition, including many antidepressants and psychostimulants.
Adhyperforin is a phytochemical found in the members of the plant genus Hypericum including St. John's Wort. It has a very similar pharmacological profile to hyperforin and acts as a TRPC6 ion channel activator, thereby inhibiting the reuptake of various neurotransmitters including serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, GABA, and glutamate. Adhyperforin is found in St. John's Wort in levels approximately 1/10 those of hyperforin.
Hypericum olympicum, commonly known as the Mount Olympus St. John's wort, is a species of flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae found in the Balkans and Turkey and introduced to western Europe. It has been widely cultivated for centuries because of its large, showy flowers, which are far larger than those of most other species in Hypericum.
Vortioxetine, sold under the brand names Trintellix and Brintellix among others, is a medication used to treat major depressive disorder. Its effectiveness is viewed as similar to that of other antidepressants. It is taken by mouth.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of drugs that are typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and other psychological conditions.
PPPA, or 3-phenoxy-3-phenylpropan-1-amine, is a drug which is described as an antidepressant. It was derived by Eli Lilly from the antihistamine diphenhydramine, a 2-diphenylmethoxyethanamine derivative with additional properties as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), and has been the basis for the subsequent discovery of a number of other antidepressant drugs.
Pseudohypericin is an aromatic polycyclic dione that is very closely related to hypericin. It is found most commonly in the St. John's wort family of plants, namely in Hypericum perforatum. In preliminary studies in animal models, pseudohypericin has shown antiviral effects. It may also contribute to the potential antidepressant effect of Hypericum perforatum extracts.
27 clinical trials with a total of 3808 patients were reviewed [...] For patients with mild-to-moderate depression, St John's wort has comparable efficacy and safety when compared to SSRIs. Follow-up studies carried out over a longer duration should be planned to ascertain its benefits.
A total of 3,126 patients with depression were included. St John's wort extract did not differ from SSRIs in clinical response, remission, and mean reduction in Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression score. [...] Both St John's wort extract and SSRIs are effective in treating mild-to-moderate depression. St John's wort extract is safer than SSRIs.