Alzheimer's disease in the Hispanic/Latino population

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Alzheimer's disease (AD) in the Hispanic/Latino population is becoming a topic of interest in AD research as Hispanics and Latinos are disproportionately affected by Alzheimer's Disease and underrepresented in clinical research. [1] [2] AD is a neurodegenerative disease, characterized by the presence of amyloid-beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, that causes memory loss and cognitive decline in its patients. [3] However, pathology and symptoms have been shown to manifest differently in Hispanic/Latinos, as different neuroinflammatory markers are expressed and cognitive decline is more pronounced. [4] [5] Additionally, there is a large genetic component of AD, with mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP), Apolipoprotein E APOE), presenilin 1 (PSEN1), bridging Integrator 1 (BIN1), SORL1, and Clusterin (CLU) genes increasing one's risk to develop the condition. [6] [7] [8] However, research has shown these high-risk genes have a different effect on Hispanics and Latinos then they do in other racial and ethnic groups. [9] Additionally, this population experiences higher rates of comorbidities, that increase their risk of developing AD. [9] Hispanics and Latinos also face socioeconomic and cultural factors, such as low income and a language barrier, that affect their ability to engage in clinical trials and receive proper care. [10] [2]

Contents

Alzheimer's disease

A healthy brain (left) and the brain of a late-stage Alzheimer's brain (right) Healthy Brain and Severe AD Brain (24239522109).jpg
A healthy brain (left) and the brain of a late-stage Alzheimer's brain (right)

Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia, accounting for 60% of all cases, and is the sixth leading cause of death in the elderly. [11] [12] The disease typically presents itself with intracellular aggregation of hyper-phosphorylated tau, forming neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), and the extracellular aggregation of amyloid beta (Aβ), forming neuritic plaques. [7] As of 2020, 5.4 million Americans have been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease, and this number is projected to reach 15-22 million by 2050. [6] [10] Hispanics and Latinos account for 55 million of the population and this population is projected to rise to 97 million, accounting for 25% of the U.S. population, in 2050. [10]

Hispanic/Latino population

Hispanics and Latinos make up 18% of the U.S. population, however, they are underrepresented in clinical research. [2] [13] The National Institute of Health (NIH) reported that Hispanic and Latinos accounted for less than 8% of reported clinical trial participants. [10] One proposed reason for the lack of representation is that the Hispanic/Latino population includes many people from different countries, and with this diverse background come different characteristics and comorbidities associated with AD. [10] Hispanic and Latinos have a higher prevalence of AD compared to White non-Hispanics. [10] [2] Studies estimate that 12% of older Hispanic and Latino adults were diagnosed with AD, the highest proportion compared to all other ethnic groups. [2] Hispanic and Latinos are the fastest-growing population in the U.S., and Hispanic/Latino seniors, those who are 65 and older, are expected to have the largest rise in AD and dementia cases compared to other populations, reaching 3.5 million by 2060. [10] In 2011 the National Alzheimer's Disease Project Act was signed into law. [2] The goal of this act was for The National Institute of Aging to accelerate research and clinical care of patients with AD; this act also has the benefit of seeking to improve the inclusion of underrepresented populations in AD research and clinical trials. [2]

Types

There exist two types of Alzheimer's disease: familial Alzheimer's disease, also called early-onset Alzheimer's disease (EOAD), and sporadic Alzheimer's disease, also called late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). [6] [14] EOAD is the less common of the two, accounting for 5-10%, and patients with EOAD are typically diagnosed with familial AD before they turn 65 years old. [6] [14] LOAD is more common and accounts for 90% of AD cases and its patients experience onset after they turn 65. [12] [7] EOAD has been shown to have 2 types of inheritance patterns: mendelian (mEOAD) and non-mendelian (nmEOAD, sporadic) patterns. [6] The three main genes that implicated in familial AD are amyloid precursor protein (APP), Presenilin-1 (PSEN-1), presenilin-2 (PSEN-2). [6] [14] [7] Onset of sporadic AD has both genetic and environmental risk factors. [14] Some genes of interest in LOAD are the APOE gene, specifically the ApoE4 allele, bridging Integrator 1 (BIN1), SORL1, and clusterin (CLU). [6] [7] [15] [16] [8]

Pathology and symptoms

Amyloid beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles

Comparing the formation of the plaques, as a result of neuroinflammation, between wild-type (PP) mice, AD-transgenic mice (3xTgAD), and AD patients. The inflammation-induced accumulation of APP fragments (red) represents the seeding point for the aggregation of Amyloid-beta peptides (green). Systemic Inflammation AD 03.jpg
Comparing the formation of the plaques, as a result of neuroinflammation, between wild-type (PP) mice, AD-transgenic mice (3xTgAD), and AD patients. The inflammation-induced accumulation of APP fragments (red) represents the seeding point for the aggregation of Amyloid-beta peptides (green).

Neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary Tangles (NFTs) are the main pathological component of AD. [7] [17] Neuritic plaques are composed mainly of the peptide Aβ, but also include other components. [18] APP is processed through either of two pathways, the first is termed the amyloidogenic pathway and produces Aβ. [18] The second pathway is the non-amyloidogenic pathway and does not produce Aβ. [18] In the amyloidogenic pathway, APP (the parent protein) is trafficked to endosomes, cleaved by beta-secretase (BACE), after which it moves back to the cell surface to be cleaved by gamma secretase thus releasing the Aβ peptide. [7] [8] [17] [18] This form of APP processing produces multiple Aβ peptides, of which Aβ40 and Aβ42 peptide are most abundantly produced produced. [7] [19] APP can also be cleaved by alpha and gamma-secretase and undergo non-amyloidogenic processing. [17] [19] NFTs form when the tau protein, which is involved in microtubule stability, is hyperphosphorylated, dissociates from microtubules and then aggregates with other p-tau monomers forming tau oligomers, fibrils and eventually NFTs. [7] These types of pathologies do not differ across ethnic groups. [7]

Chronic inflammation

Neuroinflammation is another pathological component of AD pathology, and is associated with an increase in levels of inflammatory markers. [7] [20] Researchers have also identified many genes linked to immune function that are risk factors for AD, such as TREM2. [20] TREM2 are highly expressed in microglia, the immune cell of the brain, tying the progression of AD with dysfunction in microglial activity. [21]  Neuroinflammation, Aβ and tau pathologies interact in Alzheimer's disease, and their progress can be monitored with biomarkers. [20] For example, studies have found the neuroinflammatory marker YKL-40 in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of AD patients. [16] [4] This protein increases years before the onset of AD symptoms and correlates with other neurodegenerative biomarkers, which suggests a potential to predict disease progression. [4] While YKL-40 has not been shown to associate with the APOE -ε4 allele, there is research to link this biomarker to AD in the Hispanic population. [4]

Neurodegeneration

Along with the plaques and inflammation, patients with AD also suffer from neurodegeneration, characterized by loss of neurons and synapses (the communication tool for neurons). [17] [7] As a result, the entire brain shrinks in volume (termed brain atrophy), the ventricles grow larger, and the hippocampus and cortex shrink in size. [7] [17] As all these pathologies progress, patients begin to experience a decline in memory, cognitive abilities, and independence. The accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles and loss of synaptic fields correlate most closely with cognitive loss. [7]

Mild cognitive impairment

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) precedes the overt diagnosis of AD. [3] [22] [23] To be diagnosed with MCI a patient must show memory impairment, a progressive decline in cognitive abilities without presenting symptoms of Parkinson's disease, cerebrovascular diseases, and behavioral or language disorders. [23] Studies show that older Hispanic/Latinos exhibit a higher prevalence of dementia than caucasians. [5] [24] Demographic and linguistic factors can prevent a proper MCI diagnosis. [25] [26] For instance, subjects for whom English might not be the primary language require use of a translator to perform the cognitive testing, which could affect testing results, but such experimental weaknesses are frequently not described. [25] [26]

PiB-PET scan of an AD patient (left) compared to an age-matched control (right). Pittsburgh Compound B (PIB) is easily taken up into the brains of AD patients and is used to detect Amyloid beta. Brain regions that are colored red and yellow correspond to a high concentration of PiB, suggesting high amounts of amyloid deposit PiB PET Images AD.jpg
PiB-PET scan of an AD patient (left) compared to an age-matched control (right). Pittsburgh Compound B (PIB) is easily taken up into the brains of AD patients and is used to detect Amyloid beta. Brain regions that are colored red and yellow correspond to a high concentration of PiB, suggesting high amounts of amyloid deposit

Brain imaging

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a brain imaging technique that uses a small amount of radioactive substance, called a tracer, to measure energy use or a specific molecule in different brain regions. [27] In AD research, tracers can be used to detect neuritic plaques (containing Aβ) and tau. Depending on the tracer used, the signal can be used to determine the presence of neuritic plaques and NFTs. [27]

The role of genetic mutations in Alzheimer's Disease Apomorphine therapeutic scheme.png
The role of genetic mutations in Alzheimer's Disease

Biomarkers

Establishing biomarkers for the early detection of AD is an ongoing are of research because pathological changes occur years before symptoms become apparent. [7] [16] Common biomarkers for AD include amyloid beta and hyperphosphorylated tau, both of which can be found in brain tissue and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). [7] Aβ provides a biomarker of neuritic plaques, which form when APP cleavage results in an increase in the Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio. [7] Hyperphosphorylated tau serves as a biomarker of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), with the presence of NFTs indicating a disruption in microtubule stability and neuronal injury. [7] Researchers have begun investigating other markers in the CSF, such as markers of neuronal injury, like Visinin-Like-Protein-1 (VILIP-1), YKL-40, and Neurogranin (NGRN). [16] Due to the low use of CSF sampling in most countries, efforts have been made to study biomarkers in blood. [16] Through work on blood biomarkers, researchers have been able to find proteins that are elevated in AD patients and have predictive potential. [16] The predictive potential of these plasma markers increases further when coupled with the presence of genetic risk factors, such as the APOE E4 allele. [16] Examples of plasma biomarkers include interleukin, TGF, and micro-RNA. [16]

Genetic risk factors being considered for integration with biomarkers includes ApoE, PSEN1, Bin1, CLU, and SORL1. [15] [8] [7] [6]

APOE gene

A 22K fragment of the APOE4 protein (IB68). A 22K fragment of APOE4 (APOE4) (IB68).jpg
A 22K fragment of the APOE4 protein (IB68).

Apolipoprotein E (APOE) is a lipoprotein, composed of 299 amino acids, that is expressed throughout the body but particularly important in the brain where it is involved in cholesterol metabolism, specifically in the intracellular and extracellular transport, delivery, and distribution. [15] APOE associates with high-density lipoproteins (HDL). [12] The gene for APOE is located on chromosome 19 and exhibits polymorphisms in the population defined by three alleles of APOE: 𝜀2, 𝜀3, and 𝜀4. [15] [18] These alleles differ by only two single nucleotide polymorphisms in exon 4, rs429358 and rs7412 (amino-acid position 112 and 158). [7] [15] APOE𝜀3 is the more common of the three and is present in 50-90% of the general population. [15] [18] APOE 𝜀4 is the most common risk factor for LOAD, increasing genetic risk up to 33-fold, depending on the population (see the table below). [19] Over 50% of LOAD patients have the 𝜀4 allele and that having even one copy of the 𝜀4 allele increases the risk of developing Alzheimer's by a factor of 4. [7] [6] [15] [18] APOE 𝜀2 has been shown to have a neuroprotective effect with carriers of the allele showing a lower prevalence of AD. [15] [18] The neuropathological effects of APOE ε4 are pleiotropic; APOE ε4 impairs uptake of cholesterol by neurons, promotes microglial dysfunction, promotes beta-amyloid aggregation and is increases cerebral angiopathy (CAA). [7] [12] [18] The increased incidence of AD associated with the APOE ε4 allele has been proposed to be directly linked to Aβ because it modulates Aβ aggregation and clearance, although increasing evidence points to a multitude of actions. [28]

The risk of developing AD with two copies of the APOE𝜀4 allele across various racial-ethnic groups [9] [16]
PopulationAPOE𝜀4 Association with AD
Caucasian12.5
African Americans5.7
Hispanic2.2
Japanese33.1

While extensive research has been done on the APOE4 gene, more information is available for caucasians than for other ethnic and racial groups. [2] The research focusing on the Hispanic and Latino population, suggests that race is a key variable in assessing the risk of carrying the APOE ε4 allele in developing AD. [6] [10] [15] Genetic studies of Hispanic and Latino populations, show a lower risk of developing AD for individuals with the APOE ε4 than observed in Caucasians. [10] For instance, the prevalence of AD seen in Caribbean Hispanics, compared to White Non-Hispanics, appears to be independent of APOE genotype. [10] Our understanding of ApoE ε4 continues to evolve, though, as Hispanic and Latino representation in research increases leading to larger sample sizes and improved population stratification . [10] [2] [13]

PSEN1 gene

The human gamma-secretase protein complex imaged using cryo-electron microscopy. The structure contains nicastrin (red), presenilin-1 (orange), PEN-2 (blue), and APH-1 (green). This is a transmembrane protein complex that processes amyloid precursor protein (APP) to Ab peptide. 5a63.png
The human gamma-secretase protein complex imaged using cryo-electron microscopy. The structure contains nicastrin (red), presenilin-1 (orange), PEN-2 (blue), and APH-1 (green). This is a transmembrane protein complex that processes amyloid precursor protein (APP) to Aβ peptide.
The processing of APP by a, b and g-secretases APP metabolism by the secretase enzymes.jpg
The processing of APP by α, β and γ-secretases

Presenilin 1 (PSEN1) is the catalytic subunit of the transmembrane protein complex gamma-secretase. [29] [12] This protein cleaves amyloid precursor protein (APP), after beta-secretase cleavage, to produce Amyloid beta. [12] [29] The gene for PSEN1 is located on chromosome 14, q24.2, and consists of 12 exons that encode a 467-amino-acid protein that is predicted to traverse the membrane 9 times. [12] Over 200 pathogenic mutations of this protein exist, many of which account for 18% to 50% of autosomal dominant EOAD cases. [15] [12] [30] PSEN1 mutations increase the risk of developing AD by increasing the production of amyloid beta-42, compared to amyloid beta-40. [12] Unlike APOE4, PSEN1 mutations tend to have a clear pathological effect in Hispanics and Latinos and tend to express region-specific mutations. [10] Puerto Ricans have a G206A mutation that causes familial AD, Cuban families diagnosed with EAOD commonly exhibit a L174M, mutation, Mexican families exhibit L171P and A431E mutations, and Colombian families exhibit an E280A mutation (particularly in the municipality of Yarumal). [10] [31]

BIN1 gene

Bridging Integrator 1 (BIN1) is a widely expressed Bin-Amphiphysin-Rvs (BAR) adaptor protein that is located on chromosome 2, q14.3, and contains 20 exons. [19] BIN1 mainly regulates clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Due to a large number of exons, this gene is subject to alternative splicing, with the major forms varying in the splicing of exons 6a, 10, 12, and 13. [19] Genetic studies indicate that dysfunction in BIN1 is the second most important risk factor for AD. [7] [19] The mechanism through which BIN1 contributes to AD, though, is unclear. Studies suggest a range of possible reasons that BIN1 is associated with AD including interactions of BIN1 with the microtubule-associated proteins (i.e. CLIP170), endosomal trafficking of APP and APOE by BIN1, and BIN1 mediated regulation of inflammation through the expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1). [19] The interaction of BIN1 and tau might also be important because elevated levels of BIN1 are associated with increased AD risk through tau load; this result is suggested because of studies of the functional rs59335482 variant. [19] Additionally, endocytic trafficking of APP by BIN1 could be important because trafficking determines if APP will undergo the non-amyloidogenic or the amyloidogenic pathway. [19] For example, if APP is transported to the endosome, it will likely be cleaved by beta-secretase and undergo amyloidogenic processing, but if it accumulates on the cell surface it will be likely cleaved by alpha-secretase and undergo non-amyloidogenic processing. [19] Lastly, BIN1 facilitates the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism by regulating the expression of the rate-limiting enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1). [19] For the IDO1 mechanism, increased BIN1 expression could increase levels of a toxic tryptophan derivative IDO1. [19] These metabolites have been suggested to be involved in AD pathology and cognitive decline, as they co-localize with the plaques and NFTs in patient brains. [19]

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in the Hispanic/Latino population indicate that polymorphisms in the BIN1, ABAC7 and CD2AP genes are more significant in Caribbean Hispanics. [8] For instance, one BIN1 mutation that has been explored in this Caribbean Hispanics is rs13426725. [19] Other variants that increase the risk of AD include rs6733839. [19]

SORL1 gene

The X-ray crystallography structure of human SORL1 in complex with A-beta derived peptide Human SORL1 in complex with A-beta derived peptide.jpg
The X-ray crystallography structure of human SORL1 in complex with A-beta derived peptide

Sortilin-related receptor 1 (SORL1) is a 250-kDa membrane protein with seven distinct domains that make it a member of two receptor families: the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) family of ApoE receptors and the vacuolar protein sorting 10 (VPS10) domain receptor family. [28] [8] In humans, the SORL1 gene is located on chromosome 11, specifically q232-q24.2. [28] As a protein SORL1 is highly expressed in the brain. [28] SORL1 is an intracellular protein that is expressed in early endosomes and the trans-Golgi network. [28] SORL1 plays an important role in the intracellular trafficking of APP. [28] [8] The protein can bind to APP expressed in endosomes and allow APP to be transported back to the cell surface, which prevents amyloidogenic processing and the production of cytotoxic Aβ40 and Aβ42. [28] [32] Moreover, SORL1 has been shown to facilitate cholesterol transport through its tendency to bind to APOE-lipoprotein complexes. [28] Strong disease-linked polymorphisms in SORL1 combine with its role in APP trafficking render SORL1 a biomarker of strong interest for LOAD. [28] [32] Decreased levels of SORL1 transcript and protein have been observed in the brains of AD patients. [28] [32]

Analysis of SORL1 polymorphisms in the Hispanic/Latino population using GWAS and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) have shown that several SORL1 mutations are seen in Caribbean Hispanics. [8] [32] Two rare polymorphisms in SORL1 associated with AD were observed in this population, rs117260922-E270K and rs143571823-T947M, as well as a common variant (rs2298813-A528T) . [8] [32] These polymorphisms are not specific to Hispanics/Latinos as they are also observed in non-Hispanic white individuals. [8]

ATP binding cassette transporters

The Cryo-EM structure of Human ABCA1 Human ABCA1.jpg
The Cryo-EM structure of Human ABCA1

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette transporters are a large family of ABC transporters that regulates the efflux of cholesterol in neuronal cells. [7] Two members of the ATP binding cassette transporter family have been implicated in LOAD: ABC Subfamily A Member 1 (ABCA1) and ABC Subfamily A member 7 (ABCA7). [8] [6] [19] ABCA1 is a 220-240 kDa protein whose gene is located in chromosome 9q31.1 [33] Its putative role in AD is tied to its role in stabilizing ApoE lipidation and degrading amyloid beta expressed in the brain. [8] [7] ABCA7 exhibits strong genetic linkage to AD; it is involved in lipid and cholesterol processing, as well as immune system function. [34] [19] ABCA7 exhibits tighter association with amyloid deposition than ABCA1. [34] The research on ABCA7 mutations in the Hispanic/Latino population is a bit controversial. Some studies propose that mutations in ABCA7 are more common in Caucasian patients, whereas Hispanics/Latinos are more likely to express a BIN1 mutation. [8] But researchers have still found polymorphisms specific to this population, one example being a 44-base pair frameshift deletion in ABCA7 increases AD risk in African Americans and Caribbean Hispanics. [6]

Clusterin

Clusterin (CLU), also known as apolipoprotein J, is an 82 kDa glycoprotein protein that is located on chromosome 8. [7] [35] [16] It has multiple physiological functions, some examples being lipid transport, immune modulation, and cell death. [16] [35] CLU is known to have the ability to clear Aβ peptides and prevent their aggregation, which suggests that CLU has a neuroprotective effect. [16] [35] [7] While one might expect AD to be associated with lower levels of a neuroprotective protein, biomarker studies indicate that CLU is upregulated in the plasma, CSF, hippocampus, and cortex of AD patients. [16] [35] [7] One theory explaining this apparent contradiction is CLU is actually reduced early in life, increasing risk of developing AD. [16] In this scenario, CLU might increase in subjects with AD as a compensatory response to the disease; further research is clearly necessary to clairy this area. [16] However, genetic studies show that CLU is the third most significant risk factor for LOAD, which has propelled extensive genetic research related to CLU and AD. [35] Two CLU variants of interest, that are associated with reduced AD frequency, are rs11136000 and rs9331896. [16] However, little is known about the relationship between CLU and AD risk in the Hispanic/Latino community. [36]

Comorbidities

Studies have shown that metabolic disorders, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, obesity, and depression can increase one's risk of developing AD as well as increase the rate at which it progresses. [9] [10] [37] In the United States, 33% of the total population suffers from a metabolic disorder (i.e. diabetes and hypertension). [10] Hispanic and Latino adults are at an increased risk of developing these conditions compared to Caucasians. [2] As of 2017, it has been reported that 35% of all Latinos suffer from an AD comorbidity, with 17% suffering from diabetes and 25.4% suffering from hypertension. [10] The high prevalence of cardiovascular and metabolic conditions is thought to contribute to the higher risk of Alzheimer's Disease seen in Hispanics and Latinos. [10] [2] [13] [37]

Hypertension

The clinical stages of hypertension Hypertension ranges chart.png
The clinical stages of hypertension

Hypertension is a condition characterized by persistently high blood pressure. [38] [39] Two measurements are taken to quantify blood pressure: systolic and diastolic blood pressure. [39] A patient is diagnosed as hypertensive when their systolic blood pressure is greater than 140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure is greater than 90 mmHg. Not many people with hypertension are aware that they have the condition. [39] [38] In 2010, 31.1% of adults worldwide had hypertension, but only 45.6% of them were aware they had the condition. [39] Hypertension is more apparent in the Hispanic/Latino population, as in 2008 the incidence rate of hypertension for Hispanic adults aged 45–84 was 65.7%, compared to 56.8% for non-Hispanic whites of the same age. [2] [40] Hispanic/Latinos are more likely to be unaware of their condition, compared to non-Hispanics, and be less likely to seek treatment, which increases the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and AD. [40] [39] Hypertension can be reduced by lifestyle changes (e.g., weight loss and exercise) and pharmacological intervention. [37] [38] Multiple studies suggest that use of antihypertensive drugs might reduce the risk of dementia and AD. [37] [18]

Diabetes

Type-II diabetes is a metabolic condition characterized by high blood sugar and defective insulin secretion by pancreatic β-cells. [41] [42] A patient is diagnosed with diabetes when their fasting blood glucose levels are above 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) or above 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dl) two hours after an oral dose of glucose. [42] As with hypertension, diabetes is more common in the Hispanic/Latino population than in the Caucasian population. [43] In the U.S., Hispanic/Latinos are reported to have a diabetes prevalence of 22.6%, compared to 11.3% in non-Hispanic whites. [43] This increased risk is associated with genetic factors, environmental factors (i.e. diet), and socioeconomic status. [40] [44] Recently AD has also been characterized as a metabolic disease of glucose regulation, as patients experience alterations in brain insulin responsiveness that leads to oxidative stress and inflammation. [43] Changes in cerebral glucose signaling associated with AD have been proposed to as type three diabetes, although this has not been adopted as an official designation. [43] [45] Older diabetic Mexican Americans are twice as likely to develop dementia than those without diabetes. [43] Additionally, the longer a patient is diabetic, the faster the rate of cognitive decline within the same and racial and age group. [43]

Lifestyle

Many of the comorbidities for AD can be reduced through lifestyle changes. [39] [41] Hypertension can be treated by reducing sodium intake, increasing potassium intake, reducing alcohol consumption, and engaging in at least 150 min of moderate-intensity or 75 min of vigorous-intensity physical activity per week. [39] Similarly, diabetes can also be treated by increasing physical activity and changing diet. [41] The same lifestyle changes are recommended for AD patients. [7]

Hispanics and Latinos in clinical research

The distribution of Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Hispanic and Latino Americans by state.svg
The distribution of Hispanics and Latinos in the United States

The terms Latino and Hispanic are used interchangeably in formal and informal settings. [46] The term "Hispanic" specifically denotes those who can trace their ancestry to a Spanish-speaking country, such as Spain and most of Latin America, the exceptions being Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. [10] The term "Latino" denotes those who can trace their ancestry to Latin America and the Caribbean. [10] The diversity among Hispanic and Latino groups has led to proposals that the Latino/Hispanic population in the U.S. should not be treated as a homogenous group, and also to define subgroups based on their country of origin. [2]

Socioeconomic status

The socioeconomic status of the Hispanic/Latino population population is thought to contribute to their low participation in clinical trials. [13] [2] [10] In the U.S., the income and socioeconomic status of Hispanics and Latinos are lower when compared to White Non-Hispanics. [10] In 2015, a study reported that 25% of the Hispanic/Latino population lives in poverty and their median family income was $17,800 lower than their white counterparts. [10]

Studies from 2017 showed that the difference in income is present across many income brackets, with only 38.6% of Latinos reporting a household income between $50,000 and $149,999, in comparison to 45.6% of Non-Hispanic whites. [10] A similar trend was seen with levels of higher education and medical literacy attained by Hispanics and Latinos. [10] [2] As of 2013, it was reported that 22% of Latino adults (25 years and over) had earned an associate degree or higher, compared to the 46% seen in White Non-Hispanics. [10] This trend is also seen with advanced degrees, as Latinos only account for 7% of Master's degrees and 1% Doctorate degrees awarded in the U.S. [10] The lower measures of socioeconomic achievement and education level have been proposed to be associated with high mortality and dementia rates. [2] [10] [13] In contrast, high educational levels are correlated with lower rates of dementia. [7]

Hispanic and Latinos that are 65 years and older make up one of the largest groups of uninsured individuals in the U.S. [2] This makes it difficult for these seniors to obtain the clinical care necessary for management of AD. [7] [6] [2] The cost of care for insured patients 65 years and older was estimated to be $25,213 per person, compared to the estimated $7750 for senior patients without AD. [47] Increasing efforts are being made to include minorities in clinical research, for instance by providing travel support for participants. [13] [10]

The Cost of AD Care in 2020 [47]
Payment SourceCost in Billions ($)
Medicare$155
Medicaid$51
Out of Pocket$66
Other$33
TOTAL$305

Language barrier

Putative language barriers can also interfere with healthcare for the Hispanic and Latino community. Clinical trials can require participants to be fluent in English, which can potentially exclude older Hispanic and Latino subjects, who might not be fluent in English. [10] [2] Only 40% of the older generation, Latinos over the age of 69, are fluent. [10] Proficiency in English is less of an issue for younger Latinos, with 90% of the population between the ages of 5 and 17 speaking the language fluently. [10] Weak communication between physician and patient can also impair medical care. [2] [10] For instance, this issue occurs with clinical notes, which are typically translated from the English version of the same document for Spanish-speaking individuals. [2] The medical community is attempting to address this issue by recruiting staff and physicians able to communicate with participants in their native language, as well as providing training on cultural sensitivity. [10] [13]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amyloid beta</span> Group of peptides

Amyloid beta denotes peptides of 36–43 amino acids that are the main component of the amyloid plaques found in the brains of people with Alzheimer's disease. The peptides derive from the amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP), which is cleaved by beta secretase and gamma secretase to yield Aβ in a cholesterol-dependent process and substrate presentation. Aβ molecules can aggregate to form flexible soluble oligomers which may exist in several forms. It is now believed that certain misfolded oligomers can induce other Aβ molecules to also take the misfolded oligomeric form, leading to a chain reaction akin to a prion infection. The oligomers are toxic to nerve cells. The other protein implicated in Alzheimer's disease, tau protein, also forms such prion-like misfolded oligomers, and there is some evidence that misfolded Aβ can induce tau to misfold.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amyloid-beta precursor protein</span> Mammalian protein found in humans

Amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP) is an integral membrane protein expressed in many tissues and concentrated in the synapses of neurons. It functions as a cell surface receptor and has been implicated as a regulator of synapse formation, neural plasticity, antimicrobial activity, and iron export. It is coded for by the gene APP and regulated by substrate presentation. APP is best known as the precursor molecule whose proteolysis generates amyloid beta (Aβ), a polypeptide containing 37 to 49 amino acid residues, whose amyloid fibrillar form is the primary component of amyloid plaques found in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amyloid plaques</span> Extracellular deposits of the amyloid beta protein

Amyloid plaques are extracellular deposits of the amyloid beta (Aβ) protein mainly in the grey matter of the brain. Degenerative neuronal elements and an abundance of microglia and astrocytes can be associated with amyloid plaques. Some plaques occur in the brain as a result of aging, but large numbers of plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are characteristic features of Alzheimer's disease. Abnormal neurites in amyloid plaques are tortuous, often swollen axons and dendrites. The neurites contain a variety of organelles and cellular debris, and many of them include characteristic paired helical filaments, the ultrastructural component of neurofibrillary tangles. The plaques are highly variable in shape and size; in tissue sections immunostained for Aβ, they comprise a log-normal size distribution curve with an average plaque area of 400-450 square micrometers (µm²). The smallest plaques, which often consist of diffuse deposits of Aβ, are particularly numerous. The apparent size of plaques is influenced by the type of stain used to detect them, and by the plane through which they are sectioned for analysis under the microscope. Plaques form when Aβ misfolds and aggregates into oligomers and longer polymers, the latter of which are characteristic of amyloid. Misfolded and aggregated Aβ is thought to be neurotoxic, especially in its oligomeric state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerebral amyloid angiopathy</span> Disease of blood vessels of the brain

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is a form of angiopathy in which amyloid beta peptide deposits in the walls of small to medium blood vessels of the central nervous system and meninges. The term congophilic is sometimes used because the presence of the abnormal aggregations of amyloid can be demonstrated by microscopic examination of brain tissue after staining with Congo red. The amyloid material is only found in the brain and as such the disease is not related to other forms of amyloidosis.

Imaging genetics refers to the use of anatomical or physiological imaging technologies as phenotypic assays to evaluate genetic variation. Scientists that first used the term imaging genetics were interested in how genes influence psychopathology and used functional neuroimaging to investigate genes that are expressed in the brain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apolipoprotein E</span> Cholesterol-transporting protein most notably implicated in Alzheimers disease

Apolipoprotein E (Apo-E) is a protein involved in the metabolism of fats in the body of mammals. A subtype is implicated in the Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular diseases. It is encoded in humans by the gene APOE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monoclonal antibody therapy</span> Form of immunotherapy

Monoclonal antibody therapy is a form of immunotherapy that uses monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to bind monospecifically to certain cells or proteins. The objective is that this treatment will stimulate the patient's immune system to attack those cells. Alternatively, in radioimmunotherapy a radioactive dose localizes a target cell line, delivering lethal chemical doses. Antibodies have been used to bind to molecules involved in T-cell regulation to remove inhibitory pathways that block T-cell responses. This is known as immune checkpoint therapy.

The biochemistry of Alzheimer's disease, the most common cause of dementia, is not yet very well understood. Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been identified as a proteopathy: a protein misfolding disease due to the accumulation of abnormally folded amyloid beta (Aβ) protein in the brain. Amyloid beta is a short peptide that is an abnormal proteolytic byproduct of the transmembrane protein amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP), whose function is unclear but thought to be involved in neuronal development. The presenilins are components of proteolytic complex involved in APP processing and degradation.

Bapineuzumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody that acts on the nervous system and may have potential therapeutic value for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and possibly glaucoma. However, in 2012 it failed to produce significant cognitive improvements in patients in two major trials, despite lowering key biomarkers of AD, amyloid brain plaque and hyperphosphorylated tau protein in CSF.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SORL1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Sortilin-related receptor, L(DLR class) A repeats containing is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SORL1 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alzheimer's disease</span> Progressive neurodegenerative disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and progressively worsens. It is the cause of 60–70% of cases of dementia. The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events. As the disease advances, symptoms can include problems with language, disorientation, mood swings, loss of motivation, self-neglect, and behavioral issues. As a person's condition declines, they often withdraw from family and society. Gradually, bodily functions are lost, ultimately leading to death. Although the speed of progression can vary, the typical life expectancy following diagnosis is three to nine years.

Early-onset Alzheimer's disease (EOAD), also called Younger-onset Alzheimer's disease (YOAD), is Alzheimer's disease diagnosed before the age of 65. It is an uncommon form of Alzheimer's, accounting for only 5–10% of all Alzheimer's cases. About 60% have a positive family history of Alzheimer's and 13% of them are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. Most cases of early-onset Alzheimer's share the same traits as the "late-onset" form and are not caused by known genetic mutations. Little is understood about how it starts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type 3 diabetes</span> Medical condition

Type 3 diabetes is a term proposed in 2016 to describe the interlinked association between type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease. This term is used to look into potential triggers of Alzheimer's disease in people with diabetes. Use of the term dates back to at least 2008. However, the term was not officially accepted as of 2021 and it was not being used for diagnosis by most doctors.

Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) is a multisite study that aims to improve clinical trials for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This cooperative study combines expertise and funding from the private and public sector to study subjects with AD, as well as those who may develop AD and controls with no signs of cognitive impairment. Researchers at 63 sites in the US and Canada track the progression of AD in the human brain with neuroimaging, biochemical, and genetic biological markers. This knowledge helps to find better clinical trials for the prevention and treatment of AD. ADNI has made a global impact, firstly by developing a set of standardized protocols to allow the comparison of results from multiple centers, and secondly by its data-sharing policy which makes available all at the data without embargo to qualified researchers worldwide. To date, over 1000 scientific publications have used ADNI data. A number of other initiatives related to AD and other diseases have been designed and implemented using ADNI as a model. ADNI has been running since 2004 and is currently funded until 2021.

The Alzheimer's disease biomarkers are neurochemical indicators used to assess the risk or presence of the disease. The biomarkers can be used to diagnose Alzheimer's disease (AD) in a very early stage, but they also provide objective and reliable measures of disease progress. It is imperative to diagnose AD disease as soon as possible, because neuropathologic changes of AD precede the symptoms by years. It is well known that amyloid beta (Aβ) is a good indicator of AD disease, which has facilitated doctors to accurately pre-diagnose cases of AD. When Aβ peptide is released by proteolytic cleavage of amyloid-beta precursor protein, some Aβ peptides that are solubilized are detected in CSF and blood plasma which makes AB peptides a promising candidate for biological markers. It has been shown that the amyloid beta biomarker shows 80% or above sensitivity and specificity, in distinguishing AD from dementia. It is believed that amyloid beta as a biomarker will provide a future for diagnosis of AD and eventually treatment of AD.

Florbetaben, a fluorine-18 (18F)-labeled stilbene derivative, trade name NeuraCeq, is a diagnostic radiotracer developed for routine clinical application to visualize β-amyloid plaques in the brain. It is indicated for Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging of β-amyloid neuritic plaque density in the brains of adult patients with cognitive impairment who are being evaluated for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other causes of cognitive impairment. β-amyloid is a key neuropathological hallmark of AD, so markers of β-amyloid plaque accumulation in the brain are useful in distinguishing AD from other causes of dementia. The tracer successfully completed a global multicenter phase 0–III development program and obtained approval in Europe, US and South Korea in 2014.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PLD3</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Phospholipase D3, also known as PLD3, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PLD3 gene. PLD3 belongs to the phospholipase D superfamily because it contains the two HKD motifs common to members of the phospholipase D family, however, it has no known catalytic function similar to PLD1 or PLD2. PLD3 serves as a ssDNA 5' exonuclease in antigen presenting cells. PLD3 is highly expressed in the brain in both humans and mice, and is mainly localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the lysosome.

The ion channel hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), also known as the channel hypothesis or the amyloid beta ion channel hypothesis, is a more recent variant of the amyloid hypothesis of AD, which identifies amyloid beta (Aβ) as the underlying cause of neurotoxicity seen in AD. While the traditional formulation of the amyloid hypothesis pinpoints insoluble, fibrillar aggregates of Aβ as the basis of disruption of calcium ion homeostasis and subsequent apoptosis in AD, the ion channel hypothesis in 1993 introduced the possibility of an ion-channel-forming oligomer of soluble, non-fibrillar Aβ as the cytotoxic species allowing unregulated calcium influx into neurons in AD.

Nicole Schupf is an American epidemiologist and neuroscientist who is Professor of Epidemiology in Neurology, Psychiatry, the Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, and the Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Faculty of Medicine. She studies aging and Alzheimer's disease in individuals with Down syndrome.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) in African Americans is becoming a rising topic of interest in AD care, support, and scientific research, as African Americans are disproportionately affected by AD. Recent research on AD has shown that there are clear disparities in the disease among racial groups, with higher prevalence and incidence in African Americans than the overall average. Pathologies for Alzheimer’s also seem to manifest differently in African Americans, including with neuroinflammation markers, cognitive decline, and biomarkers. Although there are genetic risk factors for Alzheimer’s, these account for few cases in all racial groups.

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