Ancient Near Eastern seals and sealing practices

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Clay bulla impressed with the seal of Barnamtarra, wife of Lugalanda, ensi (ruler) of Lagash. Early Dynastic III, c. 2400 BC. Found in Telloh (ancient Girsu) Seal Barnamtarra Louvre AO13222.jpg
Clay bulla impressed with the seal of Barnamtarra, wife of Lugalanda, ensi (ruler) of Lagash. Early Dynastic III, c. 2400 BC. Found in Telloh (ancient Girsu)

Two main types of seals were used in the Ancient Near East, the stamp seal and the cylinder seal. Stamp seals first appeared in 'administrative' contexts in central and northern Mesopotamia in the seventh millennium and were used exclusively until the fifth millennium. Cylinder seals appeared first around 3600 BC in southern Mesopotamia and south-western Iran (Middle Uruk Period). They gradually replaced stamp seals, becoming the tool of a rising class of bureaucrats in the early stages of state formation. Even though stamp seals were still produced in the third and second millennia, cylinder seals predominated. In the first millennium, stamp seals made a strong comeback and eventually replaced cylinder seals entirely.

Place names and sites

Stamp seal and modern impression. Horned animal and bird, 6th-5th millennium B.C. Northern Syria or Southeastern Anatolia. Ubaid period. Metropolitan Museum of Art Stamp seal and modern impression. Horned animal and bird,6th-5th millennium B.C. Northern Syria or Southeastern Anatolia. Ubaid Period. Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg
Stamp seal and modern impression. Horned animal and bird, 6th–5th millennium B.C. Northern Syria or Southeastern Anatolia. Ubaid period. Metropolitan Museum of Art
Period/StyleAreaIconographyShapes and sizesMaterials and ManufactureSealing practices/useSites
PPN BSyriaGeometric patternsStamp seals mostly conoid or pyramid shaped, commonly perforatedBaked clay, steatite, jadeiteImpressed multiple times on gypsum slabs; used as amuletsTell Buqras, Ras Shamra
Hassuna/SamarraSyria, Iraq, AmuqGeometric patterns, seldom human figuresStamp seals mostly conoid or pyramid shaped, tetrahedron form, looped, ridge handled, anthropomorphic, commonly perforatedBaked clay, steatite, jadeiteImpressed, multiple times on gypsum slabs, used as amuletsTell es-Sawwan, Tell Hassuna, Tell Cudeyde, Yarimtepe I, Ras Shamra
HalafSyria, Iraq, Amuq, TurkeyGeometric patterns, Saint Andrews Cross appears, seldom animal figuresStamp seals mostly conoid or pyramid shaped, double axe or cloverleaf seal, grooved and oval disk seals commonly perforatedBaked clay, steatite, jadeite, chlorite, serpentine, diorite, limestone, rock crystal, sandstoneContainer sealings (clay), sealings on gypsum slabs, used as amuletsTell Halaf, Chagar Bazar, Tell al-Kowm, Tell Sabi Abyad, Arpaciya, Tell Cudeyde, Tepe Gawra
UbaidSyria, Iraqfirst scenes appear, cultic, erotic, captives, animal and human figures, geometric patternsstamp seals: tabloid, lentoid and hemispheroid seals, seals with small marginal lug handles, amulet seals with a leaf or wedge, conoid or pyramid shaped, double axe or cloverleaf sealsBaked clay, steatite, jadeite, chlorite, serpentine, diorite, limestone, rock crystal, sandstoneContainer and door sealings; used as amuletsTepe Gawra, Oueili, Eridu, Arpaciya
Early UrukIraq, SyriaGeometric patterns, animal motifsCircular and rectangular stamp seals; average diameter c. 2.5-3.5 cm, sometimes up to 4 cmSoft limestones preferred; designs gouged and sometimes drilledContainer sealings (clay)Uruk, Tepe Gawra, Tell Brak, Susa
Middle UrukIraq, Iran, SyriaCylinder seals: "baggy style", animal rows, animal combat, daily life scenes, 'nude hero' mastering animals; stamp seals: animals antithetically arranged, geometric designsCylinder seals: tall, large diameter; stamp seals: circular, rectangular, zoomorphic, kidney shaped; average diameter c. 3-3.5 cmCylinder and stamp seals: soft bright limestones, gypsum. increasing use of the drill, deeply cut designs smoothened with a graverContainer sealings, door sealings, jar stoppers, sealed hollow clay balls; sometimes counter-sealing with stamp seals, sometimes multiple impressions of stamp sealsUruk, Tello, Nippur, Niniveh, Yorgan Tepe (Nuzi), Tell Brak, Tell Qraya, Tell Hamoukar, Tell Sheikh Hassan, Susa, Sharafabad, Choga Mish
Late UrukIraq, Iran, Syria, TurkeyCylinder seals: Geometric designs, files of animals, ladder-pattern, "master of the animals", monsters, intertwined snakes, pigtailed figures, architecture, heraldic scenes; activities, (captives & violence; hunting; herding; procession & cultic scenes; depictions of the 'priest king'); stamp seals: geometric designs, animalsCylinder seals: tall and large (two groups; one with heights ranging from 4–6 cm, diameters between 3–5 cm; the other with average height and diameter c. 2 cm); stamp seals: circular, zoomorphic, kidney shaped; average diameter 2.5 cmSoft, bright limestones, gypsum, steatite, rarely lapis lazuli, shell and ivory; designs cut and drilled; images rather plastic, naturalistic, deeply cut designs; sometimes axial perforation of the cylinders occurs; sometimes cylinder seals are provided with a loop, either cut in one piece with the cylinder or attached to itContainer sealings, door sealings, jar stoppers; sealings on tablets, hollow clay balls, bullae, labels, disks. Stamp seals sometimes impressed multiple times; Cylinder Seal rolled across the tablets and their edges first, then inscribed; when applied on hollow clay balls, sometimes the whole surface is covered with different sealingsUruk, Ur, Jemdet Nasr, Habuba Kabira-South, Tall Qannas, Jebel Aruda, Tall Sheikh Hassan, Tall Brak, Tall Hamoukar, Hacınebi Tepe, Hassek Höyük?, Arslantepe, Hassek Höyük, Susa, Choga Mish, Tepe Sharafabad, Godin Tepe, Tal-i Malyan
Jemdet NasrIraq, Iran, SyriaCylinder seals: daily life, production processes (weaving), pig-tailed figures, schematic designs (files of animals, e.g. spiders and scorpions, eye pattern, fish pattern)ExampleColored limestones and dark, hard stones preferred; steatite, serpentine, schist; extensive use of the drillContainer sealings; sealings on tablets, bullaeJemdet Nasr, Uruk, Ur,
Proto-ElamiteIranCylinder seals: 'animals acting as humans', Rearing animals, animal files, floral designs, monstersTall, large cylindersdarker stones preferred; limestones, steatite, chlorite, schist, bituminous stone & figures heavily proportioned, internal surfaces cut with a pointed graverContainer sealings, jar stoppers, door sealings; sealing of tablets, hollow clay balls, bullaeSusa, Tal-i Malyan, Tepe Giyan, Tepe Sialk, Godin Tepe, Tal-i Ghazir
Early Dynastic IExampleExampleExampleExampleExampleExample
Early Dynastic IIExampleExampleExampleExampleExampleExample
Early Dynastic IIIaExampleExampleExampleExampleExampleExample
Early Dynastic IIIbExampleExampleExampleExampleExampleExample
AkkadianIraq, SyriaContest scenes, mythological scenes (Sun God and Water God), worship scenes, banquet scenes, introduction scenes, procession scenesCylinder seals with concave sides (flared ends). Large (3–4 cm tall)Majority serpentine; also diorite, greenstone, jasper, lapis lazuli and rock crystalContainer sealings, (new package sealings), door sealings, bulla-labelsTell Brak, Nippur, Tell Asmar, Ur, Khafaje, Tello (Girsu), Tell Mozan
Ur IIIIraqPredominantly presentation scenes in many variations; some contest, procession and ritual scenesSmall cylinder seals rarely more than 2.8 cm tallMajority chlorite; also serpentine, steatite, limestone, hematite and lapis lazuliMajority tablet sealings; door sealings and container sealings still occurTello (Girsu), Nippur, Tell Asmar (Eshnunna), Ur, Lagash, Umma, Drehem
Isin-LarsaIraq, SyriaContest scenes, procession scenes. Presentation scenes; libation or animal offerings. New motifs include male or deity holding a mace, deity with scimitar, and nude female. Commonly mixture of elements from different scenes.Cylinder seals: straight. Average height: 2.5-3.0 cm; "burgul" seals with no iconography used alongside common cylinder seals at certain sites (Eshnunna, Kish, Marad, Nippur, Isin, Kisurra, and Ur).Dark hard stones preferred, mainly haematite; also Goethite, serpentine, jasper, agate, rock crystal, lapis lazuli (often reused seals and scrap material), soft limestones and chlorite, and terracotta. More seldom shell, gypsum, "greenstone", obsidian, carnelian, mudstone, and basalt. Drilling and filing with hand-held tools. Use of emery as abrasive. Tool traces are masked by further engraving, micro-chipping and polishing.Container sealings and door sealings. Also tablet and envelope sealings (letters, legal and administrative documents) and occasionally bullae; multiple impressions of the same or different sealsEshnunna, Shaduppum, Sippar-Yahrurum, Sippar-Amnanum, Kish, Nippur, Larsa, Isin, Kisurra, and Ur, Mari (T. Hariri)
Old BabylonianIraqContest scenes, presentation scenes, figure holding a mace, deity with scimitar, and nude female. Less introduction scenes. Commonly mixture of elements from different scenes. Two figures flanking the inscription on Late Old Babylonian seals.Cylinder seals: straight, average height: 2.5-3.0 cm; "burgul" seals not attested after the 18th century BC.Haematite mostly; magnetite around the 18th century; the rest same materials as Isin-Larsa. Introduction of bow-driven cutting wheels and drills during the mid-18th century BC; now unmasked drill holes, filing- and wheel marks.Container sealings and door sealings. Also tablet and envelope sealings (letters, legal and administrative documents); multiple impressions of the same or different sealsSippar-Yahrurum, Sippar-Amnanum, Babylon, Kish, Nippur, Larsa, Isin, Kisurra, and Ur
Old AssyrianIraq, Syria, AnatoliaIntroduction- and presentation scenes, chariots drawn by equids, bulls on offering tables, procession- and contest scenes, water god.Cylinder seals: straight. Average height: 1.8-2.8 cm.Haematite most common, also magnetite, lapis lazuli, limestone, jasper, and basalt. Execution individual, "flat, linear style"of carving similar to Isin-Larsa glyptic from the Diyala area. Figures with fork-like handsContainer sealings, door- and window sealings. Also tablet and envelope sealings (letters and legal documents), bullae and triangular tags; multiple impressions of the same or different sealsAssur (Qal’at Sherqat), Ninveh, Nuzi (Yorghantepe), Shubat-Enlil (T. Leilan), Kanesh (Kültepe), Acemhöyük, Alişar, and Boğazköy.
Mittani Common StyleIraq, Syria, Cyprus, Levant, Greece, Iran, Anatolia, Georgia, Armenia, the Persian GulfSimple ritual scenes where figures flank a tree, rows of animals and humans.Cylinder seals: straight; height varies.Compositional, sintered quartz (frit) and faience. A few of chert and hematiteMost seals stem from burials.Malikh, Hasanlu, Beth Shan, Byblos, Kamid el-Loz, Mohammed 'Arab, Nuzi, Hazor, Megiddo, Alalakh, Tell Kazel, Tell Al-hamidiya, Dhekelia, Tell Billa, Assur, Lchashen, Sapar-Kharaba, Tell Brak
Mittani Elaborate StyleIraq, Syria, Greece, LevantRitual scenes, drinking and offering scenes, animal rows. Some inscribedCylinder sealsHematite, chalcedony, carnelian, agate, chert, limestone; colourful. Use of the drill on hard stonesTablet and envelope impressionsNuzi, Alalakh, Tell Brak
First Kassite StyleIraq, IranTwo figure ritual scenes. Bordered crosses, rosettes, animals; gazelles, frogs, birds, dogs and fish. Long inscriptions.Small and uniform sizeHard stones; chalcedony, agateExampleNuzi, Nippur, Nimrud
Pseudo-Kassite StyleIraq, Iran, The Persian GulfMore linear than First Kassite. Inscriptions not length of whole seal and without real meaning (only for show). Double lines and hatched bands common. Monsters and birds.ExampleSoft composite materials; sintered quartz (frit) and glass.ExampleNippur, Choza Zanbil, Susa, Subeidi, Failaka
Second Kassite StyleIraqChthonic god cycle including natural and cosmic elements. Sacred tree flanked by living creatures; human or animalCylinder sealsHard stones (colourful); chalcedony, agate, lapis lazuli. Glass. With golden capsTablet sealingsThebes, Nippur, Ur, Subeidi, Assur, Aqar Quf
Third Kassite Style/Isin II StyleIraqAnimals or monster scenes, a few involving humans. marru. Linear tendencyCylinder sealsSoft stones and quartz. Gold caps flourish. Drill used less than in Second Kassite seals.Tablet and envelope sealingsUr, Uruk, Nippur, Abu Hatab, Luristan
Middle AssyrianIraq, SyriaContest scenes, animal scenes (horse and winged bull appear), chariot scenes, hunting with archer, temples, antithetically arranged pairs of figures including the winged "griffin-demon", "sacred-tree"; sometimes inscription included; also schematic, linear depictionsStraight cylinder seals; average diameter c. 1.6 cm, average height ranging between 3.2-4.7 cmAgate, limestone, quartz, jasper, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, talc, frit; either cutting of high quality or - for the cut-style - cursory engraving with extensive use of the cutting wheelTablet and envelope sealings; container and door sealingsAssur, Tell Sheikh Hamad (Dur-Katlimmu), Tell Mohammed Arab, Tell Fakhariya, Tell Sabi Abyad, Tell Billa, Tell al-Rimah
Neo-AssyrianIraq, SyriaRoyal worship, king with bow and cup, devotional scenes, banquet scenes, contest scenes, ritual scenes, animal scenes, hunting scenes. Figures flanking a tree. The "siege"Cylinder and stamp sealsManufactured in 4 styles; linear (soft materials; steatite, serpentine and sintered quartz (frit)), modeled (chalcedony), cut (hard and soft materials), drilled (chalcedony, agate)Container sealings. Jar stoppers. Door sealings. Bullae. Tablet sealingsNimrud, Nineve, Assur, Tell Sheikh Hamad (Dur-Katlimmu)
Neo-BabylonianExampleExampleExampleExampleExampleExample
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References

    General bibliography:

    Manufacture and materials

    Prehistoric seals

    Sealing practice:

    Uruk seals

    Early Dynastic seals

    Iconography:

    Sealing practice:

    Akkadian

    Glyptic art:

    Sealing practice:

    Ur III

    Glyptic art:

    Sealing Ur III:

    Sealing documents:

    Isin-Larsa / Old Babylonian

    Old Assyrian

    Mitanni and Kassite

    Middle Assyrian

    Sealing practices:

    Kassite/Middle Babylonian