Geologic modelling,geological modelling or geomodelling is the applied science of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crust based on geophysical and geological observations made on and below the Earth surface. A geomodel is the numerical equivalent of a three-dimensional geological map complemented by a description of physical quantities in the domain of interest. Geomodelling is related to the concept of Shared Earth Model; which is a multidisciplinary, interoperable and updatable knowledge base about the subsurface.
A geological survey is the systematic investigation of the geology beneath a given piece of ground for the purpose of creating a geological map or model. Geological surveying employs techniques from the traditional walk-over survey, studying outcrops and landforms, to intrusive methods, such as hand augering and machine-driven boreholes, to the use of geophysical techniques and remote sensing methods, such as aerial photography and satellite imagery. Such surveys may be undertaken by state, province, or national geological survey organizations to maintain the geological inventory and advance the knowledge of geosciences for the benefit of the nation. A geological survey map typically superimposes the surveyed extent and boundaries of geological units on a topographic map, together with information at points and lines. The maps and reports created by geological survey organisations generally aim for geographic continuity and completeness in establishing the spatial patterns of near-surface rock units. The map may include cross sections to illustrate the three-dimensional interpretation. Subsurface geological and geophysical maps, providing limited coverage of deeper geology, are maintained internally by major oil companies and regulators. Some geological survey organisations have collaborated with them to include subsurface geology in their systematic surveys, for example, the Geological Atlas of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. Subsurface maps typically depict the three-dimensional form of geological surfaces by means of contours and cross sections. Computer-based models are increasingly used to provide more comprehensive information storage and greater flexibility of presentation. In the United States, the 50 state surveys are coordinated by the Association of American State Geologists.
A GIS software program is a computer program to support the use of a geographic information system, providing the ability to create, store, manage, query, analyze, and visualize geographic data, that is, data representing phenomena for which location is important. The GIS software industry encompasses a broad range of commercial and open-source products that provide some or all of these capabilities within various information technology architectures.
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) is a scientific agency of India. It was founded in 1851, as a Government of India organization under the Ministry of Mines, one of the oldest of such organisations in the world and the second oldest survey in India after Survey of India, for conducting geological surveys and studies of India, and also as the prime provider of basic earth science information to government, industry and general public, as well as the official participant in steel, coal, metals, cement, power industries and international geoscientific forums.
Earthscope was an National Science Foundation (NSF) funded earth science program that, from 2003-2018, used geological and geophysical techniques to explore the structure and evolution of the North American continent and to understand the processes controlling earthquakes and volcanoes. The project had three components: USArray, the Plate Boundary Observatory, and the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth. Organizations associated with the project included UNAVCO, the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS), Stanford University, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Several international organizations also contributed to the initiative. EarthScope data are publicly accessible.
Knowledge-Centered Service is a service delivery method that focuses on knowledge as a key asset of the organization implementing it. Development began in 1992 by the Consortium for Service Innovation, a non-profit alliance of service organizations. Its methodology is to integrate use of a knowledge base into the workflow.
Geosteering is the optimal placement of a wellbore based on the results of realtime downhole geological and geophysical logging measurements rather than three-dimensional targets in space. The objective is usually to keep a directional wellbore within a hydrocarbon pay zone defined in terms of its resistivity, density or even biostratigraphy. In mature areas, geosteering may be used to keep a wellbore in a particular section of a reservoir to minimize gas or water breakthrough and maximize economic production from the well. In the process of drilling a borehole, geosteering is the act of adjusting the borehole position on the fly to reach one or more geological targets. These changes are based on geological information gathered while drilling. Originally only a projected target would be aimed for with crude directional tools. Now the advent of rotary steerable tools and an ever-increasing arsenal of geophysical tools enables well placement with ever-increasing accuracy. Typically a basic tool configuration will have directional and inclination sensors, along with a gamma ray tool. Other options are neutron density, look ahead seismic, downhole pressure readings et al. Due to the vast volume of data generated, especially by imaging tools, the data transmitted to surface is a carefully selected fraction of what is available. Data is collected in memory for a data dump when back on surface with the tool.
GeoSciML or Geoscience Markup Language is a GML Application Schema that can be used to transfer information about geology, with an emphasis on the "interpreted geology" that is conventionally portrayed on geologic maps. Its feature-type catalogue includes Geologic Unit, Mapped Feature, Earth Material, Geologic Structure, and specializations of these, as well as Borehole and other observational artefacts. It was created by, and is governed by, the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information (CGI) to support interoperability of information served from Geologic Surveys and other data custodians. It will be used in the OneGeology project, an effort to create a geological map of the entire Earth, served live by merging data from many national geological surveys.
GeoModeller is a methodology and associated software tool for 3D geologic modelling developed by Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières and Intrepid Geophysics over the last 20 years. The software is written using Open CASCADE in C++ for the engine, Java for the GUI and data are stored in extensible mark-up language XML. GeoModeller has started to revolutionise the working practices, data standards and products of a geological survey as a whole. The software takes into account all structural geology data such as dip, dip directions, strike, hingelines and axialtrace to build the geometry of geological units.
First developed in 1985 by RockWare Inc, RockWorks is used by the mining, petroleum, and environmental industry for subsurface visualization, borehole database management as well as the creation of grids, solid models, calculating volumetric analysis, etc.
ZOOMQ3D is a numerical finite-difference model, which simulates groundwater flow in aquifers. The program is used by hydrogeologists to investigate groundwater resources and to make predictions about possible future changes in their quantity and quality. The code is written in C++, an object-oriented programming language and can compile and run on Windows and Unix operating systems.
NVivo is a qualitative data analysis (QDA) computer software package produced by QSR International. NVivo helps qualitative researchers to organize, analyze and find insights in unstructured or qualitative data like interviews, open-ended survey responses, journal articles, social media and web content, where deep levels of analysis on small or large volumes of data are required.
There is a large body of knowledge that designers call upon and use during the design process to match the ever-increasing complexity of design problems. Design knowledge can be classified into two categories: product knowledge and design process knowledge.
A synthetic seismogram is the result of forward modelling the seismic response of an input earth model, which is defined in terms of 1D, 2D or 3D variations in physical properties. In hydrocarbon exploration this is used to provide a 'tie' between changes in rock properties in a borehole and seismic reflection data at the same location. It can also be used either to test possible interpretation models for 2D and 3D seismic data or to model the response of the predicted geology as an aid to planning a seismic reflection survey. In the processing of wide-angle reflection and refraction (WARR) data, synthetic seismograms are used to further constrain the results of seismic tomography. In earthquake seismology, synthetic seismograms are used either to match the predicted effects of a particular earthquake source fault model with observed seismometer records or to help constrain the Earth's velocity structure. Synthetic seismograms are generated using specialized geophysical software.
In the oil and gas industry, reservoir modeling involves the construction of a computer model of a petroleum reservoir, for the purposes of improving estimation of reserves and making decisions regarding the development of the field, predicting future production, placing additional wells, and evaluating alternative reservoir management scenarios.
Digital geologic mapping is the process by which geological features are observed, analyzed, and recorded in the field and displayed in real-time on a computer or personal digital assistant (PDA). The primary function of this emerging technology is to produce spatially referenced geologic maps that can be utilized and updated while conducting field work.
Softree Technologies is a North Vancouver, BC based company that develops software for the forestry, civil engineering, and energy industries.
BGS Groundhog Desktop is a software tool developed and made available by the British Geological Survey and used for geological data visualisation, interpretation and 3D geologic modelling. It is available in both free-to-use and commercial editions. Groundhog Desktop is a key part of the BGS's work to develop 3D models of the UK subsurface.
Geological perspective correlation is a theory in geology describing geometrical regularities in the layering of sediments. Seventy percent of the Earth's surface are occupied by sedimentary basins – volumes consisted of sediments accumulated during million years, and alternated by long interruptions in sedimentation (hiatuses). The most noticeable feature of the rocks, which filled the basins, is layering (stratification). Stratigraphy is a part of Geology that investigates the phenomenon of layering. It describes the sequence of layers in the basin as consisted of stratigraphic units. Units are defined on the basis of their lithology and have no clear definition. Geological Perspective Correlation (GPC) is a theory that divided the geological cross-section in units according strong mathematical rule: all borders of layers in this unit obey the law of perspective geometry.
Sedimentation layers are mainly created in shallow waters of oceans, seas, and lakes. As new layers are deposited the old ones are sinking deeper due to the weight of accumulating sediments. The content of sedimentary layers, their order in the sequence, and geometrical characteristics keep records of the history of the Earth, of past climate, sea-level and environment. Most knowledge about the sedimentary basins came from exploration drilling when searching for oil and gas. The essential feature of this information is that each layer is penetrated by the wells in a number of scattered locations. This raises the problem of identifying each layer in all wells – the geological correlation problem The identification is based on comparison of 1) physical and mineralogical characteristics of the particular layer (lithostratigraphy), or 2) petrified remnants in this layer (biostratigraphy). The similarity of layers is decreasing as the distance between the cross-sections increases that leads to ambiguity of the correlation scheme that indicates which layers penetrated at different locations belong to the same body. To improve the results geologists take in consideration the spatial relations between layers, which restricted the number of acceptable correlations. The first restriction was formulated in XVII century: the sequence of layers is the same in any cross-section. The second one was discovered by Haites in 1963: In an undisturbed sequence of layers (strata) the thicknesses of any layer observed in two different locations obey the law of perspective geometry, i.e. the perspective ratio K = H1/H2 is the same for all layers in this succession. This theory attracted attention around the world., and particularly in Russia The theory is also a basis of the method of graphical correlation in biostratigraphy widely used in oil and coal industries.
The Geological Survey and Mineral Exploration of Iran or in brief GSI is a government agency responsible for conducting geological and mineral surveys throughout the country, collecting the results of activities carried out in this field, establishing coordination, preparing and publishing geological maps of Iran. It is a subdivision of the Ministry of Industry, Mine and Trade, which was established in 1962 in cooperation with United Nations.
