Background
After the assassination of the third Rashidun caliph Uthman ibn Affan, disputes arose within the early Muslim community regarding his succession, resulting in the First Fitna. Ali ibn Abi Talib was chosen in Medina to succeed Uthman as the fourth Rashidun caliph, but this was refused by Uthman's kinsman and the long-time governor of the Levant, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan. The two parties fought the Battle of Siffin in July 657, which ended in a stalemate and arbitration.
Following the failure of arbitration talks, hostilities resumed between Mu'awiya and Ali. Subsequently, Mu'awiya gained control of Egypt, with the aid of Amr ibn al-As. Mu'awiya also dispatched his lieutenant commanders to launch raids against Ali's strongholds in Iraq and Arabia.
Campaigns in Arabia
Mu'awiya sent Yazid ibn Shajara, a pious Uthmanid, to secure the pledge of allegiance from the Quraysh tribe of Mecca in the early 660s, but the mission proved to be a failure. He was given an army of 3,000 soldiers, who were not informed about the objective of the expedition. Yazid refused to shed blood in the Islamic holy land, although Mu'awiya stated that removing the governor of Mecca (whom he considered to be a participant in the killing of Uthman) was a pious act. [6] [7] Later that year, Mu'awiya appointed Busr ibn Abi Artat in his plans to subjugate the Hejaz and Yemen regions.
Raid of Al-Harith bin Nimr Al-Tanukhi and the Killing of Abd al Rahman Al Khathami
When Mu'awiya dispatched Yazid ibn Shajara, he also sent Al-Harith ibn Nimr Al-Tanukhi to the Al-Jazira region to assert his authority by taking captive those loyal to Ali. Al-Harith took seven men from Daraa who had defected from Ali to Mu'awiya. They asked Mu'awiya to release their companions, but Mu'awiya rejected their request, and they consequently defected from him as well.
Mu'awiya wrote to Ali to ransom them with a man that Mu'aqqal ibn Qais had captured from the companions of Yazid ibn Shajara. Ali sent them to Mu'awiya, and Mu'awiya released those men. Ali sent Abd al-Rahman al-Khathami to pacify the region of Mosul. The defectors of the Taghlib tribe encountered Abd al-Rahman and killed him. Ali was prepared to send troops against the defectors, however, on the request of the Rabi'a tribe, who stated the killing of Abd al-Rahman as a mistake, Ali refrained from doing so. [8] [9]
Dumat Al-Jandal incident
Mu'awiya made an attempt to attain zakat from the neutral tribes of the region by dispatching Muslim ibn Uqba to collect it. However, their refusal led Ibn Uqba to besiege them, which Ali responded to by sending Malik ibn Ka'ab with 1000 cavalry to confront the Syrians. The battle was indecisive, and the Syrians retreated the next day. [10] [11]
Siege of Tayma
Mu'awiya dispatched Abd Allah ibn Mas'ada al-Fazari to Medina and Mecca with 1,700 troops. Learning about this, Ali sent Al Musayyab with 2,000 troops to counter him. The two forces skirmishes and Ibn Mas'ada was nearly captured, but he evaded capture, escaping to the fortress at Tayma which was besieged for three days by Al Musayyab. The camels of Ibn Mas'ada's men were slaughtered by the tribesmen. Firewood was piled up at the fortress gates and set alight.
Ibn Mas'ada's men pleaded for mercy on the basis of tribal affiliations and the fire was extinguished. When Musayyab pulled back his forces, Ibn Mas'ada and his forces escaped to Syria under the cover of nightfall. A plan for pursuit was devised but Musayyab refused to pursue the escapees. For this act, Musayyab was demoted to alms collector, following a few days of imprisonment. [12] [13] [14] [15]
Hejaz campaign of Busr
Amr ibn al-As provided Busr ibn Abi Artat with 3000 Syrian troops for his expedition. The Qaysi nobility warned Mu'awiya of the possible vengeance that Busr might exact on them in retaliation to the killings of Fihr and Kinana by Qaysi Banu Sulaym during the Conquest of Mecca, leading to Mu'awiya to strip Busr of authority over Qaysi tribesmen under his command. At Deir Murran, he dropped 400 troops out of his campaign and continued his expedition with 2600 soldiers. [16] [17]
When Busr arrived in Medina, which was his primary target as it had been the capital of the caliphate before Ali relocated it to Kufa, he faced no resistance while delivering a speech condemning the Ansar, the traditional elites of Medina. Ali's governor of Medina, Abu Ayyub al-Ansari fled to Kufa. Busr halted at every watering place along his route and requested to use the camels of the locals when his soldiers were exhausted, in order to preserve the stamina of his war horses. He demolished the houses of Ali’s allies, including Abu Ayyub’s, and obtained the pledge of allegiance to Mu'awiya from the city’s notables, sparing its inhabitants. [18] [19]
After Medina, Busr headed towards Mecca, Ali's governor of city, Qutham ibn Abbas fled with a large number of its inhabitants. Busr located the representative of Ali in the arbitration talks and a companion of Muhammad, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, and pardoned him. After praying at the Ka'ba, Busr took pledges of allegiance to Mu'awiya from the inhabitants except from Sa'id ibn al-As, a distant kinsman of Mu'awiya. Qutham might have taken the control of Mecca after the departure of Busr from the city. [19] [20]
Al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba, one of the notables of Taif, greeted Busr when he had arrived at the city and persuaded him not to attack the Banu Thaqif. The representatives of Taif had also informed Busr that he had no authority over the core clan of Qays. Busr spared the inhabitants, while dispatching troops to Tabala against the partisans of Ali ibn Abi Talib, but ultimately pardoned them. After leaving Taif, Busr entered the tribal territory of the Kinana, where he came across Abd al-Rahman and Qutham, the young sons of Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas, governor of Yemen and Ali's cousin. Busr executed both Abd al-Rahman and Qutham. [21] [22] [23]
Campaigns in Iraq and Syria
Invasion of Basra
After the death of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, Mu'awiya dispatched Abd Allah ibn Amir al-Hadhrami with 2,000 men to Basra to persuade its people, particularly the Banu Tamim, to join the Umayyads. [24] At the time, the governor of the city, Abd Allah ibn Abbas, had gone to Kufa, leaving Ziyad ibn Abihi as his deputy. Ziyad informed Ali about the deteriorating situation in the city. Forced to flee, Ziyad took refuge with the tribe of Azd.
Ali dispatched the Banu Tamim of Kufa under the command of Aʿyan ibn Dahiʿah al-Mujashiʿ to confront al-Hadhrami, but al-Mujashiʿ was killed shortly after arriving in Basra. Ali then sent Jariyah ibn Qudamah al-Saʿdi with a relief force of fifty men from the Banu Tamim. However, the tribesmen soon began fighting amongst themselves. Jariyah then called upon his deputy Ziyad and the Azd tribe for assistance. They arrived and skirmished with al-Hadhrami, forcing him to retreat and take shelter in the house of Sabil al-Saʿdi. The house was set on fire, killing most of the men inside. Those who escaped were cut down by the besieging forces. [25] [26] [27]
Skirmish of Al Samawa
Mu'awiya sent Zuhayr ibn Makhul, to collect alms taxes from the Banu Kalb tribe who were neutral in the conflict but had a marriage alliance with Mu'awiya through his wife Maysun, daughter of the Kalbite chieftain Bahdal ibn Unayf. In response Ali sent Jafar, Al Julas and Urwa. They met Zuhayr and fought him. Jafar was killed by Zuhayr, Al Julas fled to Kufa, while Urwa was criticized and whipped by Ali for what he denounced as Urwa's cowardice. Urwa then defected to Mu'awiya and his house was destroyed by Ali in retaliation. This skirmish bought minor success for the Umayyads. [10] [28]
Battle of Palmyra
Al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri raided Al-Qutqutana, killing Ibn Umays. Ali asked the Kufans to rise up against the Syrian invasion force. Hujr ibn Adi rose up first, following which 4,000 more people volunteered and set out to confront the attackers. They clashed with Al-Dahhak's forces in Palmyra, forcing Al-Dahhak to retreat, after which raids continued for two more days. In the same year, Mu'awiya himself marched up to the Tigris River but later retreated. [10] [29] [30]
Raid of Ayn al Tamr
Mu'awiya dispatched Al-Nu'man ibn Bashir with 2,000 troops to raid the garrison of Ayn Al-Tamr, which was stationed by Malik ibn Ka'ab Al-Arabi and his men. Ali asked the Kufans to respond to their assault, but their slow response prompted Ali to encourage the Kufans in a sermon to retaliate against the Syrians. Following this, Adi ibn Hatim went to Ali, offering 1,000 troops at his disposal. Adi, along with his 1,000 troops, under orders from Ali, went to al-Nukhayla and then from there, raided Syrian territory while moving along the Euphrates River. [31] [32] [33]
Raids of Hit and Al Anbar
In 659, Mu'awiya launched raids against Anbar and Ctesiphon. [34] Mu'awiya sent Sufyan ibn Awf to Hit with 6,000 men and with orders to continue to Al Anbar and Al-Mada'in. In Hit, there was no confrontation, but in Anbar, they attacked Ali's garrison of 500 men, routing around 400, while 100 soldiers remained. Cavalry and infantry attacks killed the garrison commander Ashras ibn Hassan Al Bakri and 30 men, while the garrison was looted. Ali sent Sa'id ibn Qays al-Hamdani to confront him, who went as far as Anat to pursue the raiders but was not able to engage them. [29] [35]
Battle of Qarqisiya
Mu'awiya intended to overthrow Shabath ibn Rib'i, the governor of Qarqisiya. Shabath had marched out to the outskirts of the city because he heard that a Syrian force planned to attack Hīt. He said, “Let us strike them before they strike us, for it is said: ‘Attack with a shout and they will flee.’”
Kumayl left only one man behind to guard Hīt and departed with all his companions. When the Umayyad army approached, the fifty men stationed in Hīt fled. Ali became angry when he heard this and wrote to Kumayl, saying:
“A man who neglects what he is responsible for and rushes into what is unnecessary is weak. But for you to abandon your duty and leave it for Qarqisiya is an error, ignorance, and bad judgment.”
Mu'awiya continued to launch repeated attacks on Qarqisiya. Around this time, Kumayl received a letter from Shabīb ibn ʿĀmir al-Azdī in Nasībīn. A spy had informed Shabīb that Mu'awiya had sent Abd al-Rahman ibn Qubath toward al-Jazīra, though it was unclear whether his destination was Hīt or the Euphrates region.
Kumayl consulted his men and said, “If Ibn Qubath is coming for us, we will meet him; and if he intends our brothers in Nasībīn, we will intercept him.” He then set out with 400 horsemen, leaving 600 men in Hīt, and began disrupting enemy movements.
Later, Kumayl appointed Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi as commander in Hīt and went to join forces with Shabīb in Nasībīn. Shabīb brought 600 horsemen, and together they formed a force of 1,000 riders. They marched toward Abd al-Rahman ibn Qubath, who was at that time in Qarqisiya with a sizeable Syrian force.
Kumayl and Shabīb overtook the Syrian cavalry. The Umayyad forces, led by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Qubath and Ma'n ibn Yazid al-Salami, numbered about 2,400 men. A fierce battle ensued. The Syrian army was defeated with heavy casualties. Shabīb lost four of his men, while two of Kumayl’s soldiers,ʿAbd Allāh ibn Qays al-Qabīsī and Mudrik ibn Bishr al-Ghanawī, were killed.
After routing the Syrians, Kumayl instructed his men not to pursue the fleeing soldiers or kill the wounded. He said, “Do not chase them. We have already inflicted great harm. If we pursue them, they may regroup and return, and we do not know what outcome that would bring.” Kumayl then reported these events to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, who prayed for him and praised his conduct. [36] [37] [38] [39] [40]
Raid of Raqqa
When Shabib ibn Amir arrived with 600 horsemen from Nisibis, he found that the Syrians were routed by Kumayl, for which he congratulated him. Shabib went on to pursue the Syrians and he crossed the Euphrates at Manbij, sending his cavalry to attack the region of Baalbek. When Mu'awiya ordered Habib ibn Maslama to confront Shabib, Shabib withdrew and raided the region of Raqqa. He looted cattle, horses and weapons from the city. Ali praised him for the successful raid but instructed him not to loot cattle or personal property except for horses and weaponry. [41] [42]
Campaigns in Yemen
In 660, Mu'awiya sent Busr ibn Abi Artat of the Banu Amir ibn Lu'ayy for the military campaign in Yemen which was being ruled by Ali's governor Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas. [43] Mu'awiya had imposed sanctions on Busr for his military expeditions in Hejaz but did not place such terms in Yemen. Ka'b ibn Abda Dhi'l-Habaka al-Nahdi was killed by Busr for his previous criticism of Uthman. When he entered Najran, he ordered the killing of Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Madan, who was the leader of an embassy and his brother and son, Yazid and Malik respectively. Casualties in the conflict inflicted by Busr caused Ali to send reinforcements to Yemen and criticise his governors in Yemen for not taking strong actions against the local Uthmanids there. [44] [45] [46] [47]
Conflict with the Hamdan
Busr first attacked the Arhab clan of the Hamdan tribe and killed many loyalists of Ali, which included Abu Karib, who was a Hamdan chief. The Hamdan people took their positions above the mountains of Shibam and resisted Busr, who then bypassed the mountain and withdrew, however upon the return of the people to the villages, Busr attacked them and captured their women. It was the first ever incidence of Muslims holding Muslim women as captives. [48]
Siege of Sanaa
Ali's governors in Yemen, Ubaydallah ibn Abbas and Sa'id ibn Nirman, fled to Kufa despite Sa'id's resistance to Busr's advances in Yemen. Ubaydallah's deputy in Sanaa, Amr ibn Araka al-Thaqafi, offered resistance to Busr's invasion but was killed by Busr along with many inhabitants. From Ma'rib, a delegation of the town offered to submit to Mu'awiya, they were spared to spread the news of the massacre to Ma'rib. [49]
Siege of Jayshan
Busr launched an offensive against Jayshan, where the support for Ali was strong. Many partisans of Ali were killed and were forced to withdraw to their forts, before retreating to Sanaa. [48]
Hadhramaut expedition
Wa'il ibn Hujr invited Busr to Hadhramaut stating that half of the city was Uthmanid. Busr accepted the offer and was rejoiced by gifts, however upon Wa'il's query of Busr's intentions with the civilian population of the city, Busr replied that he intended to massacre a quarter of the city. Wa'il re-directed him to attack Abdallah ibn Thawaba, a lord of Hadhramaut and Wa'il's rival. Busr executed Thawaba soon after. [48]
Busr ended his expedition of Hadhramaut upon the news of a relief army sent by Ali and commanded by Jariya ibn Qudama and Wahab ibn Masud, consisting of 4000 troops. Busr retreated to Hejaz without confronting the relief army due to Mu'awiya's preference of incurring minimum Syrian casualties. Upon his retreat, Busr did not punish the Banu Tamim who seized parts of his loot. [50]
Encounter with Banu Hanifa
Busr entered Al-Yamama and decided to punish the chieftain of the Banu Hanifa for his neutrality in the civil war. His tribesmen were spared while the chieftain Mujja'a ibn Murara was killed and his son was taken captive, but who would later be freed by Mu'awiya and made the new chief of the Banu Hanifa tribe. [51]
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