Venus' flower basket

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Venus' flower basket
Euplectella aspergillum Okeanos.jpg
Group of Venus' flower baskets
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Porifera
Class: Hexactinellida
Order: Lyssacinosida
Family: Euplectellidae
Genus: Euplectella
Species:
E. aspergillum
Binomial name
Euplectella aspergillum
Owen, 1841

The Venus' flower basket (Euplectella aspergillum) is a glass sponge in the phylum Porifera. It is a marine sponge found in the deep waters of the Pacific Ocean, usually at depths below 500 m (1,600 ft). Like other sponges, they feed by filtering sea water to capture plankton and marine snow. [1] Similar to other glass sponges, they build their skeletons out of silica, which forms a unique lattice structure of spicules. The sponges are usually between 10 cm (3.9 in) and 30 cm (12 in) tall, and their bodies act as refuge for their mutualist shrimp partners. This body structure is of great interest in materials science as the optical [2] and mechanical [3] properties are in some ways superior to man-made materials. Little is known regarding their reproduction habits, however fluid dynamics of their body structure likely influence reproduction and it is hypothesized that they may be hermaphroditic. [4]

Collected specimen of Euplectella aspergillum Euplectella-aspergillum.jpg
Collected specimen of Euplectella aspergillum

Habitat

Venus' flower baskets are found in the western Pacific Ocean nearby the Philippine Islands. Other species of this genus occur throughout oceans around the world, including near Japan and in the Indian Ocean. [4]

This sponge's habitat is on the rocky areas of the benthic seafloor, where it lives and grows connected to hard substrate for its entire life. It can be found from 100 m to 1000 m (330 ft to 3300 ft) below the ocean's surface, and is most common at depths greater than 500 m. [4] More specifically, they tend to anchor in soft sediments due to the nature of their spicules.

Connecting habitat to morphology, this sponge can often be found inhabiting loose, muddy sediments, causing them to develop a structure that would aid them in staying rooted to the sea floor. [5]

Morphology

Closeup of intricate lattice of the Venus' flower basket Expn4384 (27840605922).jpg
Closeup of intricate lattice of the Venus' flower basket
Euplectella aspergillum at a depth of 2572 meters Euplectella aspergillum (cropped).jpg
Euplectella aspergillum at a depth of 2572 meters

The body is tubular, curved and basket-like and made up of triaxon spicules. The body is perforated by numerous apertures, which are not true ostia but simply parietal gaps. Syconoid type of canal system is present, where ostia communicate with incurrent canals, which communicates with radial canals through prosopyles which, in turn, open into the spongocoel and to the outside through the osculum.

The body structure of these animals is a thin-walled, cylindrical, vase-shaped tube with a large central atrium. The body is composed entirely of silica in the form of 6-pointed siliceous spicules, which is why they are commonly known as glass sponges. The spicules are composed of three perpendicular rays, giving them six points. Spicules are microscopic, pin-like structures within the sponge's tissues that provide structural support for the sponge. It is the combination of spicule forms within a sponge's tissues that helps identify the species. In the case of glass sponges, the spicules "weave" together to form a very fine mesh, which gives the sponge's body a rigidity not found in other sponge species and allows glass sponges to survive at great depths in the water column.

It is speculated that the sponge harnesses bioluminescence to attract plankton. [6] Its lattice shape also allows it to house animals like shrimp while remaining rooted in the ground.

Their peculiar skeletal motifs have been found to have important fluid-dynamic effects on both reducing the drag experienced by the sponge and in promoting coherent swirling motions inside the body cavity, arguably to promote selective filter feeding and sexual reproduction. [7] In a study performed by Italian researcher, a three-dimensional model of Venus' Flower Basket was utilized to simulate the flow of water molecules in and out of its lattice. The researchers found that, while reducing the sponge's drag, it also created minute vortices inside the sponge which facilitated the mixing of its sperm and eggs; additionally, making feeding more efficient for the shrimp living inside of its lattice. [7]

E. aspergillum differs in having anchorate basalia with six teeth, and diactins. [8]

The skeleton of these sponges also contain silica nanoparticles among other biomaterials. [5]

Reproduction

As said in the introduction, little is known about reproduction. Sperm was found in one sample of E. aspergillum, within the connective tissue, and was described as aggregated clusters within very fine, thread-like appendages. [9] This would contribute to the idea of the species being hermaphroditic. While these sponges are sessile, the sperm can be carried by the current and the ova that a different organism retained can be fertilized. [10] It is also suggested that this species reproduces sexually, which can be deduced by the occurrence of their "internal recirculation patterns". [11]    

Red shrimp can be seen encased by the glass sponge Expl2160 (9734069617).jpg
Red shrimp can be seen encased by the glass sponge

Mutualistic relationship

The sponges are often found to house glass sponge shrimp, usually a breeding pair, who are typically unable to exit the sponge's lattice due to their size. Consequently, they live in and around these sponges, where the shrimp perform a mutualistic relationship with the sponge until they die. The shrimp live and mate in the shelter that the sponge provides, and in return they also clean the inside of the sponge. This may have influenced the adoption of the sponge as a symbol of undying love in Japan, where the skeletons of these sponges are presented as wedding gifts. [12] [13] [6] [14]

Ecology

While there is not much known about the ecology of these sponges, more research has been done on its class, Hexactinellid sponges. Hexactinellids in the Pacific ocean form reefs on the sea floor many of which are extinct now, but thrived in the Jurassic period. The role they play ecologically can be connected to their feeding on plankton in the deep sea, which produces carbon within their environments. [15] Besides this, they can house many animals that reside on the seafloor, including the shrimps mentioned in previous sections.

Ecosystem Role/Other Facts

In a study done with various glass sponges, Venus' Flower Basket was noted to be difficult to extract any further information because of how inaccessible it serves to be. However, when in contact with alkali, these sponges showed a high resistance, which then led researchers to believe that they potentially contain biomaterials like chitin, that could serve as a structural component to this species. This study suggests that as long as E. aspergillum and similar species are natural composites containing valuable biomaterials, they could be important in biomedicine and future biotechnology. [5]

Anthropomorphic applications

Silica spicules of Euplectella aspergillum Sponge Spicules of Euplectella.jpg
Silica spicules of Euplectella aspergillum

The glassy fibers that attach the sponge to the ocean floor, 5–20 centimetres (2–8 in) long and thin as human hair, are of interest to fiber optics researchers. [2] [16] The sponge extracts silicic acid from seawater and converts it into silica, then forms it into an elaborate skeleton of glass fibers. Other sponges such as the orange puffball sponge ( Tethya aurantium ) can also produce glass biologically. The current manufacturing process for optical fibers requires high temperatures and produces a brittle fiber. A low-temperature process for creating and arranging such fibers, inspired by sponges, could offer more control over the optical properties of the fibers. These nano-structures are also potentially useful for the creation of more efficient, low-cost solar cells. Furthermore, its skeletal structure has inspired a new type of structural lattice with a higher strength to weight ratio than other diagonally reinforced square lattices used in engineering applications. [6] [17]

These sponges skeletons have complex geometric configurations, which have been extensively studied for their stiffness, yield strength, and minimal crack propagation. An aluminum tube (aluminum and glass have similar elastic modulus) of equal length, effective thickness, and radius, but homogeneously distributed, has 1/100th the stiffness. [18]

Besides these remarkable structural properties, Falcucci et al. found that their peculiar skeletal motifs deliver important fluid-dynamic effects on both reducing the drag experienced by the sponge and in promoting coherent swirling motions inside the body cavity, arguably to promote selective filter feeding and sexual reproduction. [7] [11]

Rao's work on biomimicry in architecture describes the architectural inspiration gleaned from the Venus' Flower Basket structure, notably in connection with Norman Foster's design for Gherkin tower in London. [19]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Skeleton</span> Part of the body that forms the supporting structure

A skeleton is the structural frame that supports the body of most animals. There are several types of skeletons, including the exoskeleton, which is a rigid outer shell that holds up an organism's shape; the endoskeleton, a rigid internal frame to which the organs and soft tissues attach; and the hydroskeleton, a flexible internal structure supported by the hydrostatic pressure of body fluids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sponge</span> Animals of the phylum Porifera

Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera, are a basal animal clade as a sister of the diploblasts. They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexactinellid</span> Class of sponges with siliceous spicules

Hexactinellid sponges are sponges with a skeleton made of four- and/or six-pointed siliceous spicules, often referred to as glass sponges. They are usually classified along with other sponges in the phylum Porifera, but some researchers consider them sufficiently distinct to deserve their own phylum, Symplasma. Some experts believe glass sponges are the longest-lived animals on earth; these scientists tentatively estimate a maximum age of up to 15,000 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endoskeleton</span> Internal support structure of an animal

An endoskeleton is a structural frame (skeleton) on the inside of an animal, overlaid by soft tissues and usually composed of mineralized tissue. Endoskeletons serve as structural support against gravity and mechanical loads, and provide anchoring attachment sites for skeletal muscles to transmit force and allow movements and locomotion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Demosponge</span> Class of sponges

Demosponges (Demospongiae) are the most diverse class in the phylum Porifera. They include greater than 90% of all species of sponges with nearly 8,800 species worldwide. They are sponges with a soft body that covers a hard, often massive skeleton made of calcium carbonate, either aragonite or calcite. They are predominantly leuconoid in structure. Their "skeletons" are made of spicules consisting of fibers of the protein spongin, the mineral silica, or both. Where spicules of silica are present, they have a different shape from those in the otherwise similar glass sponges. Some species, in particular from the Antarctic, obtain the silica for spicule building from the ingestion of siliceous diatoms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexasterophora</span> Subclass of Hexactinellid sponges

Hexasterophora are a subclass of glass sponges in the class Hexactinellida. Most living hexasterophorans can be divided into three orders: Lyssacinosida, Lychniscosida, and Sceptrulophora. Like other glass sponges, hexasterophorans have skeletons composed of overlapping six-rayed spicules. In addition, they can be characterized by the presence of hexasters, a type of microsclere with six rays unfurling into multi-branched structures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sponge reef</span>

Sponge reefs are reefs produced by sea sponges. All modern sponge reefs are formed by hexactinellid sponges, which have an endoskeleton made of silica spicules and are often referred to as "glass sponges", while historically the non-spiculed, calcite-skeletoned archaeocyathid and stromatoporoid sponges were the primariy reef-builders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lyssacinosida</span> Order of sponges

Lyssacinosida is an order of glass sponges (Hexactinellida) belonging to the subclass Hexasterophora. These sponges can be recognized by their parenchymal spicules usually being unconnected, unlike in other sponges in the subclass where the spicules form a more or less tightly connected skeleton. Lyssacine sponges have existed since the Upper Ordovician, and three families are still alive today. The Venus' flower basket is one of the most well-known and culturally significant of the glass sponges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cloud sponge</span> Species of sponge

The cloud sponge(Aphrocallistes vastus) is a species of sea sponge in the class Hexactinellida. It is a deep-water reef-forming animal. The species was first described by F.E. Schulze in 1886.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sponge spicule</span> Structural element of sea sponges

Spicules are structural elements found in most sponges. The meshing of many spicules serves as the sponge's skeleton and thus it provides structural support and potentially defense against predators.

<i>Suberites</i> Genus of sponges

Suberites is a genus of sea sponges in the family Suberitidae. Sponges, known scientifically as Porifera, are the oldest metazoans and are used to elucidate the basics of multicellular evolution. These living fossils are ideal for studying the principal features of metazoans, such as extracellular matrix interactions, signal-receptor systems, nervous or sensory systems, and primitive immune systems. Thus, sponges are useful tools with which to study early animal evolution. They appeared approximately 580 million years ago, in the Ediacaran.

Monorhaphis is a monotypic genus of siliceous deep sea Hexactinellid sponges. The single species is the type species Monorhaphis chuni, a sponge known for creating a single giant basal spicule (G.B.S.) to anchor the sponge in the sediments. The species was described by Franz Eilhard Schulze in 1904 from specimens collected by the German Deep Sea Expedition in 1898–1899. Monorhaphis is also the only genus in the monotypic family Monorhaphididae.

<i>Euplectella</i> Genus of sponges

Euplectella is a genus of glass sponges which includes the well-known Venus' Flower Basket. Glass sponges have a skeleton made up of silica spicules that can form geometric patterns. These animals are most commonly found on muddy sea bottoms in the Western Pacific and Indian Oceans. They are sessile organisms and do not move once attached to a rock. They can be found at depths between 100 m and 1000 m but are most commonly found at depths greater than 500 m.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rossellidae</span> Family of sponges

Rossellidae is a family of glass sponges belonging to the order Lyssacinosa. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution and is found at a large range of depths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silicatein</span>

Silicateins are enzymes which catalyse the formation of biosilica from monomeric silicon compounds extracted from the natural environment. Environmental silicates are absorbed by specific biota, including diatoms, radiolaria, silicoflagellates, and siliceous sponges; silicateins have so far only been found in sponges. Silicateins are homologous to the cysteine protease cathepsin.

Claviscopulia is a genus of glass sponge in the family Farreidae.

<i>Bolosoma</i> Genus of sponges

Bolosoma is a genus of pedunculated siliceous sponges belonging to the family Euplectellidae. This genus lives in deep-sea environments and provides a habitat for a plethora of other benthic species, giving Bolosoma an incredibly important ecological role in the ecosystems it is a part of.

<i>Rossella</i> (sponge) Genus of glass sponges

Rosella is a genus of glass sponges in the family Rossellidae. It is found in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions.

Oopsacas minuta is a glass sponge that is a member of the Hexactinellida. Oopsacas minuta is found in submarine caves in the Mediterranean. It is reproductive year-round. This species is a part of a class that are usually bathyal and abyssal. Meaning they grow at a depth over 200 meters. At this depth the temperature is low and constant, so silica metabolism is optimized. However, this species has been observed in shallow water. O. minuta have only been observed by exploring caves that trap cold water. The shape of the sponge is elongated, cylindrical and a little flared. It is between a few millimeters and 3.5 centimeters. O. minuta are white are held up with a siliceous skeleton. The spicules of the skeleton intersect in an intricate network. These spindles partially block the top of the sponge. There are no obvious oscules. The sponge is anchored or suspended from the cave by silica fibers. This class of sponge is different from the three other classes of Porifera. It differs in tissue organization, ecology, development and physiology. O. minuta belongs to the order Lyssacinosida. Lyssacinosida are characterized by the parenchymal spicules mostly being unconnected; this is unlike other sponges in the subclass where the spicules form a connected skeleton. The genome of O. minuta are one of the smallest of all the animal genomes that have been sequenced so far. Its genome contains 24 noncoding genes and 14 protein-encoding genes. The spindles of O. minuta have three axes and six points. This species does not have pinacocytes, which are the cells that form the outer layer in other sponges. Instead of true choanocytes it has frill structures that bud from the syncytium.

Euplectella paratetractina is a species of glass sponge in the family Euplectellidae. It has been found in waters off the coast of Australia.

References

  1. ↑ "Are glass sponges made of glass? : Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research". oceanexplorer.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2022-04-11.
  2. 1 2 Keable, Stephen (4 April 2022). "Deepsea Glass Sponge". Australian Museum.
  3. ↑ "Secrets of the Venus' Flower Basket" (PDF).
  4. 1 2 3 Soares, Beau McKenzie. "Euplectella aspergillum". Animal Diversity Web.
  5. 1 2 3 Ehrlich, Hermann (2007). "Sponges as Natural Composites: from biomimetic potential to development of new biomaterials". Porifera Research: Biodiversity, Innovation, and Sustainability.
  6. 1 2 3 Renken, Elena (2021-01-11). "The Curious Strength of a Sea Sponge's Glass Skeleton". Quanta Magazine. Retrieved 2022-04-11.
  7. 1 2 3 Falcucci, Giacomo; Amati, Giorgio; Fanelli, Pierluigi; Krastev, Vesselin K.; Polverino, Giovanni; Porfiri, Maurizio; Succi, Sauro (21 July 2021). "Extreme flow simulations reveal skeletal adaptations of deep-sea sponges". Nature. 595 (7868): 537–541. arXiv: 2305.10901 . doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03658-1. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   34290424. S2CID   236176161.
  8. ↑ Leys, S. P.; Mackie, G. O.; Reiswig, H. M. (2007-01-01), The Biology of Glass Sponges, Advances in Marine Biology, vol. 52, Academic Press, pp. 1–145, doi:10.1016/s0065-2881(06)52001-2, ISBN   9780123737182, PMID   17298890 , retrieved 2022-12-05
  9. ↑ Schulze, Franz Eilhard (1880). "XXIV.— On the Structure and Arrangement of the Soft Parts in Euplectella aspergillum". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 29 (2): 661–673. doi:10.1017/S0080456800026181. ISSN   0080-4568. S2CID   88186210.
  10. ↑ W., R. B.; Bayer, F. M.; Owre, H. B. (April 1968). "The Free-Living Lower Invertebrates". Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 87 (2): 273. doi:10.2307/3224459. JSTOR   3224459.
  11. 1 2 Falcucci, Giacomo; Amati, Giorgio; Fanelli, Pierluigi; Krastev, Vesselin K.; Polverino, Giovanni; Porfiri, Maurizio; Succi, Sauro (2021-07-22). "Extreme flow simulations reveal skeletal adaptations of deep-sea sponges". Nature. 595 (7868): 537–541. arXiv: 2305.10901 . doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03658-1. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   34290424. S2CID   236176161.
  12. ↑ "A deep-sea love story". Schmidt Ocean Institute. Retrieved 2022-04-11.
  13. ↑ "Critter of the Week : the venus flower baskets Euplectellidae". NIWA. 2014-11-06. Retrieved 2022-04-11.
  14. ↑ Schoepf, Verena; Ross, Claire. "A deep-sea love story". Schmidt Ocean Institute.
  15. ↑ Chu, Jwf; Leys, Sp (2010-11-04). "High resolution mapping of community structure in three glass sponge reefs (Porifera, Hexactinellida)". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 417: 97–113. doi: 10.3354/meps08794 . ISSN   0171-8630.
  16. ↑ McCall, William (August 20, 2003). "Glassy sponge has better fiber optics than man-made"
  17. ↑ Fernandes, Matheus C.; Aizenberg, Joanna; Weaver, James C.; Bertoldi, Katia (21 September 2020). "Mechanically robust lattices inspired by deep-sea glass sponges". Nature Materials. 20 (2): 237–241. doi:10.1038/s41563-020-0798-1. ISSN   1476-4660. PMID   32958878. S2CID   221824575.
  18. ↑ "What Nature Teaches Us About Working Under Pressure - ZBglobal". www.zbglobal.com. Retrieved 2022-04-11.
  19. ↑ Rao, Rajshekhar (2014). "Biomimicry in Architecture" (PDF). International Journal of Advanced Research in Civil, Structural, Environmental and Infrastructure Engineering and Developing. 1: 101–107 – via ISRJournals and Publications.
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