Austroasiatic crossbow

Last updated
Austroasiatic crossbow
Crossbow, Hre - Vietnam Museum of Ethnology - Hanoi, Vietnam - DSC03205.JPG
Crossbow, Hre - Vietnam Museum of Ethnology - Hanoi, Vietnam
Type Crossbow
Culture Cham civilization
Angkorian civilization
Bahnar people
Hmong people

The Austroasiatic crossbow which is also known as the Hmong crossbow, the Jarai crossbow, or the Angkorian crossbow is a crossbow used for war and for hunting in Southeastern Asia. It has become a symbol of pride and identity for ethnic groups from Myanmar (Burma) to the confines of Indochina.

Contents

Terminology

The Austroasiatic crossbow is known as sna in Khmer, chrao in Brao [1] hneev in Hmong, [2] or hraŏ in Jarai. [3] [4]

It is one of the few Austroasiatic loanwords found in Sino-Tibetan languages as linguists have found it to be related the Chinese crossbow known as nu (弩) : "the Southern origin of this term is indisputable but the origin of the term is uncertain". [5]

History

Fight of the origins: Austroasiatic vs. Chinese

While the majority opinion is that the crossbow was of Chinese origin, [6] there is another theory pointing towards an independent Southeast Asian origin for the crossbow based on the aforementioned linguistic evidence:

Throughout the southeastern Asia the crossbow is still used by primitive and tribal peoples both for hunting and war, from the Assamese mountains through Burma, Siam and to the confines of Indo-China. The peoples of the northeastern Asia possess it also, both as weapon and toy, but use it mainly in the form of unattended traps; this is true of the Yakut, Tungus, and Chukchi, even of the Ainu in the east. There seems to be no way of answering the question whether it first arose among the barbaric forefathers of these Asian peoples before the rise of the Chinese culture in their midst, and then underwent its technical development only therein, or whether it spread outwards from China to all the environing peoples. The former seems the more probable hypothesis, given the further linguistic evidence in its support. [7]

Around 200 BC, King An Dương Vương of Âu Lạc (modern-day northern Vietnam) and (modern-day southern China) commissioned a man named Cao Lỗ (or Cao Thông) to construct a "magic crossbow" (nỏ thần), one shot from which could fire 300 arrows. [8] [9] According to historian Keith Taylor, the crossbow could have been introduced into China from Austroasiatic peoples in the south around the 4th century BC. [9] However, this is contradicted by crossbow trigger locks found in Zhou Dynasty tombs dating earlier to the 7th Century BC, as well as the mass production and widespread use of crossbows in China during the Warring States Period dating earlier to the 5th Century BC. [10]

In 315 AD, Nu Wen from China taught the Chams how to build fortifications and use handheld crossbows. The Chinese would later give crossbows as presents to the Cham on at least one occasion. [11]

Siege crossbows were transmitted to the Chams by Zhi Yangjun from the Song Dynasty, who was shipwrecked on their coast in 1172. He remained there and taught them mounted archery and how to use siege crossbows. [11] [12] In 1177, crossbows were used by Champa in their invasion and sacking of Angkor, the Khmer Empire's capital. [13]

Angkorian times: the Khmer victory trophy taken from the Cham

The use of the crossbow by the Angkorian civilization can be traced back to the bas-relief on the walls of the Bayon temple which originated in the late 12th and early 13th centuries during the reign of Jayavarman VII, from 1181 to 1218 AD. [14] These bas-relief show both hunters aiming at deer with their crossbows [15] and soldiers mounted on elephants using crossbows in battle.

It is believed that the crossbow had been perfected by the Cham inflicted severe casualties on the Khmer who did not yet possess this technology. [16] The Cham had probably received this technology from Chinese ambassadors. [17] As seen on the bas-relief of the Bayon, the Khmer trained using targets on wheels to retaliate against these armed attacks and were finally victorious under the Jayavarman VII. [18]

The Khmer themselves perfected the technology to obtain a double-bow catapult mounted on elephants and worked by two men as well as enormous crossbows , were rolled on wheeled barrows and probably used in sieges or for the defence of fortified camps. [19] The doubled crossbow mounted on elephant's back is presumed to have had enough force to be an effective anti-elephant weapon. [20] According to Michel Jacq-Hergoual'ch, the double bow crossbows mounted on elephants were merely elements of Cham mercenaries in Jayavarman VII's army. [21] Those were similar to the multiple-string arcuballistae used from the 11th century onwards by the Song dynasty. [22]

The Angkorian crossbow was lost by the Khmer presumably after the fall of Angkor (1431 CE). [23]

Early ethnological observations during French Indochina

In 1880, Louis Delaporte noticed the crossbows that were still being used in Cambodia were the same as the ones depicted on the bas-relief of Angkor Wat. [24] Others noted that the crossbow was used by almost all the peoples in Indochine before firearms were introduced. [25] However, according to Henri Mouhot, these crossbows were particularly associated to the Stieng people in both Annam and Cambodia, as they were feared because of their dexterity in their use of these weapons. [26]

Jean Moura wrote that the Brau people were most famous in Cambodia for always carrying around the crossbow. [27] Jean Moura also noted that the Brau people would add poison to the arrows to make them more deadly. [28]

A dreadful fighting weapon until the Vietnam War

Along with punji sticks, crossbows were the most powerful weapon as Indochina came under the influence of the French colonial empire. The span of the crossbow was a measuring distance. The throw of a crossbow of about 20–30 m (66–98 ft) [29] was considered the safe distance around the village at the end of the 19th century, at a time at which the Brau from the North were fighting with the Tampuan from the East over the control of the Sesan and Srepok rivers in order to dominate the Red Hills plateaux of Ratanakiri. [30]

In 1958, the crossbows of the Bajaraka resistance movement were confiscated. The movement, known as FULRO or United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races, united four main ethnic groups, including the Bahnar, Jarai, Ede and Koho people. [31]

In fact, the native Montagnards of Vietnam's Central Highlands were known to have used crossbows, as both a tool for hunting, and later, an effective weapon against the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. In 1968, Brou, Tampuan, and Jarai insurgents confronted Khmer troops and defeated with the crossbows, the international media helping to amplify their legend by romanticizing on their poisonous darts. [32] Montagnard fighters armed with crossbows therefore proved a highly valuable asset to the US Special Forces operating in Vietnam, and it was not uncommon for the Green Berets to integrate Montagnard crossbowmen into their strike teams. [33] [34]

From competitions to ethnic pride

While the crossbow is used less for war and for hunting, it has remained a popular sport in Southeast Asia. Thus, as early as December 1938, crossbow competitions have been organized at Angkor Wat "with more than 500 warriors, most of them unsubdued" [35]

Since the advent of mass tourism in Southeast Asia after the end of the Vietnam War, crossbows have become an "outrageous" souvenir for foreigners. [36]

Description

A fletcher making arrows for his crossbow in Ratanakiri in August 2022. kaardhvoesnaar.jpg
A fletcher making arrows for his crossbow in Ratanakiri in August 2022.

These crossbows have been observed among other ethnic groups in Southeast Asia such as the White Thai, the Muong of Hoa Bing, the Bunong of Mondulkiri and the Sach or the Lao, though the latter have a smaller version of it. [37] Though the crossbow has different specificities in the various ethnic groups of Indochina where it is used, its functioning principle and its appearance are similar from one group to another. [38]

The proportions of the Jarai crossbow are calculated in the following way: the length of the stock, between the place where the bow is embedded and the trigger, must be equal to half of an arm of the bow. The arrows (drang) are cut from a bamboo internode (boo) and have a fletching made of a piece of pandanus leaf (köbuut) folded into a diamond shape. The crossbow of the Mnong is slightly smaller. [39]

The cord of the crossbows is usually made from natural fibers such as hemp, though it has often replaced by plastic bands nowadays. [40]

The arrowheads are soaked in a kind of curare (kac): it is most often the sap of a large dense forest tree, quite rare in the region, the pöndrai which corresponds to Antiaris toxicaria . Another curare can be prepared from the sap of the Xylia (tröpeh) or the Sindora cochinchinensis Baill (kördaang) to which snake venom or pepper is added. Crossbow hunting (pany chrao) is often done on the lookout. Hunters use several types of shelters for this purpose. The Könöp is a mobile shelter of spherical shape about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) high or slightly more. A bamboo frame is covered with rice straw. Concealed inside, the hunter raises moves around with his shelter as he approaches his target. Könöp are made at the beginning of the dry season. They are used on clearings that have just been harvested. The Jarai also use a fixed foliage shelter called cöndraang. Hunter usually build these in a clearing or near a pond frequented by game. [41]

Crossbows are usually kept hanging within the house of the Mon-Khmer ethnic groups along with other weapons and war trophies kept from bull sacrifices. [42] It is one of the valuable assets of the Bahnar people and in the 1950s, one would inherit one or two crossbows as an inheritance [43] and it is still used as a symbolic wedding gift. [44]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Demographics of Cambodia</span> Population analysis

Demographic features of the population of Cambodia include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Montagnard (Vietnam)</span> Indigenous people of the Central Highlands of Vietnam

Montagnard is an umbrella term for the various indigenous peoples of the Central Highlands of Vietnam. The French term Montagnard ( ) signifies a mountain dweller, and is a carryover from the French colonial period in Vietnam. In Vietnamese, they are known by the term người Thượng, although this term can also be applied to other minority ethnic groups in Vietnam. In modern Vietnam, both terms are archaic, and indigenous ethnic groups are referred to as đồng bào or người dân tộc thiểu số. Earlier they were referred to pejoratively as the mọi. Sometimes the term Degar is used for the group as well. Most of those living in the United States refer to themselves as Montagnards, while those living in Vietnam refer to themselves by their individual ethnic group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Post-Angkor period</span> 1431–1863 middle period of Cambodian history

The post-Angkor period of Cambodia, also called the Middle Period, refers to the historical era from the early 15th century to 1863, the beginning of the French protectorate of Cambodia. As reliable sources are very rare, a defensible and conclusive explanation that relates to concrete events that manifest the decline of the Khmer Empire, recognised unanimously by the scientific community, has so far not been produced. However, most modern historians have approached a consensus in which several distinct and gradual changes of religious, dynastic, administrative and military nature, environmental problems and ecological imbalance coincided with shifts of power in Indochina and must all be taken into account to make an interpretation. In recent years scholars' focus has shifted increasingly towards human–environment interactions and the ecological consequences, including natural disasters, such as flooding and droughts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jarai people</span> Austronesian ethnic group of Vietnam and Cambodia

Jarai people or Jarais are an Austronesian indigenous people and ethnic group native to Vietnam's Central Highlands, as well as in the Cambodian northeast Province of Ratanakiri. During the Vietnam War, many Jarai persons, as well as members of other Montagnard groups, worked with US Special Forces, and many were resettled with their families in the United States, particularly in North Carolina, after the war.

Zhou Daguan was a Chinese diplomat of the Yuan dynasty of China, serving under Temür Khan. He is most well known for his accounts of the customs of Cambodia and the Angkor temple complexes during his visit there. He arrived at Angkor in August 1296, and remained at the court of King Indravarman III until July 1297. He was neither the first nor the last Chinese representative to visit the Khmer Empire. However, his stay is notable because he later wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor, The Customs of Cambodia. His portrayal is today one of the most important sources of understanding of historical Angkor and the Khmer Empire. Alongside descriptions of several great Buddhist temples, such as the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat, and others, the text also offers valuable information on the everyday life and the habits of the inhabitants of Angkor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnic groups in Cambodia</span>

The largest of the ethnic groups in Cambodia are the Khmer, who comprise 95.8% of the total population and primarily inhabit the lowland Mekong subregion and the central plains. The Khmer historically have lived near the lower Mekong River in a contiguous arc that runs from the southern Khorat Plateau where modern-day Thailand, Laos and Cambodia meet in the northeast, stretching southwest through the lands surrounding Tonle Sap lake to the Cardamom Mountains, then continues back southeast to the mouth of the Mekong River in southeastern Vietnam.

Jarai is a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the Jarai people of Vietnam and Cambodia. The speakers of Jarai number approximately 530,000, not including other possible Jarai communities in countries other than Vietnam and Cambodia such as United States of America. They are the largest of the upland ethnic groups of Vietnam's Central Highlands known as Degar or Montagnards, and 25 per cent of the population in the Cambodian province of Ratanakiri.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bunong people</span>

The Bunong is an indigenous ethnic group in Cambodia. They are found primarily in Mondulkiri province in Cambodia. The Bunong is the largest indigenous highland ethnic group in Cambodia. They have their language called Bunong, which belongs to Bahnaric branch of Austroasiatic languages. The majority of Bunong people are animists, but a minority of them follows Christianity and Theravada Buddhism. After Cambodia's independence in 1953, Prince Sihanouk created a novel terminology, referring to the country's highland inhabitants, including the Bunong, as Khmer Loeu. Under the People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979-89), the generic term ជនជាតិភាគតិច "ethnic minorities" came to be in use and the Bunong became referred to as ជនជាតិព្នង meaning "ethnic Pnong". Today, the generic term that many Bunong use to refer to themselves is ជនជាតិដើមភាគតិច, which can be translated as "indigenous minority" and involves special rights, notably to collective land titles as an "indigenous community". In Vietnam, Bunong-speaking peoples are recurrently referred to as Mnong.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races</span> Vietnamese guerrilla organization (1964-1992)

The United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races was an organization whose objective was autonomy for various indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in South Vietnam, including the Montagnards in the Central Highlands, the Chams in Central Vietnam, and the Khmer Krom in Southern Vietnam. Initially a political movement, after 1969 it evolved into a fragmented guerrilla group that carried on simultaneous insurgencies against the governments of South Vietnam under President Nguyen Van Thieu and North Vietnam of Ho Chi Minh. Opposed to all forms of Vietnamese rule, FULRO fought against both sides in the Vietnam War against the Soviet-aligned North and the American-aligned South at the same time. FULRO's primary supporter during the 1960s and early 1970s conflict in Southeast Asia was Cambodia, with some aid sent by the People's Republic of China during the period of the Third Indochina War.

The k'ni, also known as mim or memm in Cambodia, popularly known as a mouth violin is a mouth resonator fiddle, i.e. a fiddle-like instrument used by the Jarai people in Vietnam and Tampuan people in Cambodia.

Racism in Vietnam has been mainly directed by the majority and dominant ethnic Vietnamese Kinh against ethnic minorities such as Degars (Montagnards), Chams and the Khmer Krom. It has also been directed against black people from other countries around the world as well.

George Groslier was a French polymath who – through his work as a painter, writer, historian, archaeologist, ethnologist, architect, photographer and curator – studied, described, popularized and worked to preserve the arts, culture and history of the Khmer Empire of Cambodia. Born in Phnom Penh to a French civil servant – he was the first French child ever born in Cambodia – Groslier was taken by his mother to France at the age of two and grew up in Marseille. Aspiring to become a painter, he tried but failed to win the prestigious Prix de Rome. Shortly afterwards, he returned to Cambodia, on a mission from the Ministry of Education. There he met and befriended a number of French scholars of traditional Cambodian culture. Under their influence, he wrote and published, in France in 1913, his initial book on this subject: Danseuses Cambodgiennes – Anciennes et Modernes. It was the very first scholarly work ever published in any language on Cambodian dance. He then returned to Cambodia, traveling the length and breadth of the country to examine its ancient monuments and architecture. From this experience came his book A l'ombre d 'Angkor; notes et impressions sur les temples inconnus de l'ancien Cambodge. In June 1914, Groslier enlisted in the French army and was employed as a balloonist in the early part of World War I. It was during this time that he met and married sportswoman Suzanne Cecile Poujade; they eventually had three children.

The United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races waged a nearly three decade long insurgency against the governments of North and South Vietnam, and later the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The FULRO insurgents represented the interests of indigenous Muslim and Hindu Cham, Montagnards, and Buddhist Khmer Krom against the ethnic Kinh Vietnamese. They were supported and equipped by China and Cambodia according to those countries' interests in the Indochina Wars.

Vietnamization or Vietnamisation is the acquisition or imposition of elements of Vietnamese culture, in particular the Vietnamese language and customs. This was experienced in some historic periods by the non-Vietnamese populations of territories controlled or substantially under the influence of Vietnam. As with other examples of cultural assimilation, it could either be voluntary or forced and is most visible in the case of territories where the Vietnamese language or culture were dominant or where their adoption could result in increased prestige or social status, as was the case of the nobility of Champa, or other minorities like Tai, Chinese, and Khmers. To a certain extent Vietnamization was also administratively promoted by the authorities regardless of eras.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khmer–Cham wars</span> Wars between the Khmer Empire and Champa

Khmer–Cham wars were a series of conflicts and contests between states of the Khmer Empire and Champa, later involving Đại Việt, that lasted from the mid-10th century to the early 13th century in mainland Southeast Asia. The first conflict began in 950 AD when Khmer troops sacked the Cham principality of Kauthara. Tensions between the Khmer Empire and Champa reached a climax in the middle of the 12th century when both deployed field armies and waged devastating wars against each other. The conflicts ended after the Khmer army voluntarily retreated from occupying Champa in 1220.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Montagnard country of South Indochina</span> Autonomous territory of French Indochina

The Montagnard country of South Indochina, sometimes abbreviated as PMSI, was an autonomous territory of French Indochina, and an autonomous federation within the French Union, created in 1946 following the French reconquest of the Cao nguyên Trung bộ from the Democratic Republic of Vietnam during the First Indochina War. The territory was supposed to be an autonomous homeland of the Montagnard people within French Indochina, but existed mainly to serve French colonial interests in the region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wat Vihear Suor</span> Royal Buddhist monastery in Cambodia

Wat Vihear Suor is a Theravada Buddhist temple located in Kandal Province, Cambodia. It was built on an older pre-Buddhist cult site belonging to the Angkor era.

<i>Sra peang</i> Bunong alcoholic beverage

Sra peang is a rice wine stored in earthen pots and indigenous to several ethnic groups in Cambodia, in areas such as Mondulkiri or Ratanakiri. It is made of fermented glutinous rice mixed with several kinds of local herbs. The types and amount of herbs added differ according to ethnic group and region. This mixture is then put into a large earthenware jug, covered, and allowed to ferment for at least one month. The strength of this alcoholic beverage is typically 15 to 25 percent alcohol by volume.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cambodian mat</span>

A Cambodian mat also known as a kantael is a woven mat made from palm or reed in Cambodia. The Cambodian mat consists of an ordinary mat, below which are fixed pads of strongly packed cotton, with the help of a special loom. They are specific to the Khmer people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ballista elephant</span> Angkorian war elephant

A ballista elephant, also known as a Khmer ballista, is a war elephant mounted with a simple or double-bowed ballista which was used by the Angkorian civilization. They are considered as the summit of sophistication of Khmer weaponry comparable to the carrobalista in the legion of Vegetius.

References

  1. ↑ Matras-Troubetzkoy, Jacqueline (1983). Un village en forêt: l'essartage chez les Brou du Cambodge (in French). Peeters Publishers. p. 388. ISBN   978-2-85297-071-7.
  2. ↑ Heimbach, Ernest E. (1980). White Hmong-English Dictionary. SEAP Publications. p. 69. ISBN   978-0-87727-075-1.
  3. ↑ Guilleminet, Paul (1959). Dictionnaire bahnar-français (in French). École française d'Extrême-Orient. p. 324.
  4. ↑ Siu, Lap Minh (December 2009), Developing the First Preliminary Dictionary of North American Jarai, Texas Tech University, 82.
  5. ↑ Benedict, Paul (1989). "Austroasiatic Loanwords in Sino-Tibetan" (PDF). Austroasiatic Loanwords in Sino-Tibetan, Mon-Khmer Studies. 18 (19): 9.
  6. ↑ Scarre, Chris; Fagan, Brian (2016-03-10). Ancient Civilizations. Routledge. p. 353. ISBN   978-1-317-29608-9.
  7. ↑ Needham 1994, p. 135.
  8. ↑ Kelley 2014, p. 88.
  9. 1 2 Taylor 1983, p. 21.
  10. ↑ Loades 2018.
  11. 1 2 Needham 1994, p. 145.
  12. ↑ Turnbull 2002.
  13. ↑ Chakrabartty, H. R. (1988). Vietnam, Kampuchea, Laos, Bound in Comradeship: A Panoramic Study of Indochina from Ancient to Modern Times. Patriot Publishers. p. 461. ISBN   978-81-7050-048-3.
  14. ↑ Sien, Huor (2022-08-11). "អាវុធស្នា មានប្រវត្តិយូរលង់លើទឹកដីខ្មែរ មានភស្ដុតាងនៅលើជញ្ជាំងប្រាសាទនាចុងសតវត្សទី១២ ដើម១៣". Sabay News (in Khmer). Retrieved 2022-08-30.
  15. ↑ Laur, Jean (2002). Angkor: An Illustrated Guide to the Monuments. Vinci. p. 353. ISBN   978-2-08-010723-7.
  16. ↑ Audric, John (1972). Angkor and the Khmer Empire. R. Hale. p. 65. ISBN   978-0-7091-2945-5.
  17. ↑ Freeman, Michael; Warner, Roger (1990). Angkor: The Hidden Glories. Houghton Mifflin. p. 214. ISBN   978-0-395-53757-2.
  18. ↑ Pym, Christopher (1968). The Ancient Civilization of Angkor. New American Library. p. 135. ISBN   978-0-451-60858-1.
  19. ↑ Beerski, Pierre Jeannerat de (1924). Angkor Ruins in Cambodia. Houghton Mifflin. p. 108.
  20. ↑ Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Bayly, Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History C. A.; Scheidel, Professor of Classics and by Courtesy History Walter; Scheidel, Walter (2020-12-16). The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: the History of Empires. Oxford University Press. p. 445. ISBN   978-0-19-753276-8.
  21. ↑ Liang 2006.
  22. ↑ Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. 1954. p. 193. ISBN   978-0-521-32727-5.
  23. ↑ Til, Chanlin (2015-03-05). "ធ្នខ្មែរបុរាណបាត់បង់ជិត១ពាន់ឆ្នាំ ឥឡូវនេះ បង្ហាញមុខលើកដំបូងនៅបុណ្យភូមិ". news.sabay.com.kh (in Khmer). Retrieved 2022-08-30.
  24. ↑ Delaporte, Louis-Marie-Joseph (1880). Voyage au Cambodge (in French). Delagrave. p. 403.
  25. ↑ Harmand, Jérôme (1875). Memoires de la Societe D'Anthropologie de Paris (in French). Masson. p. 355.
  26. ↑ Mouhot, Henri (1999). Voyage dans les royaumes de Siam, de Cambodge, de Laos: et autres parties centrales de l'Indo-Chine (in French). Editions Olizane. p. 152. ISBN   978-2-88086-242-8.
  27. ↑ Moura, Jean (2015-05-21). Le Royaume du Cambodge (in French). Cambridge University Press. p. 423. ISBN   978-1-108-08398-0.
  28. ↑ Moura, Jean (2015-05-21). Le Royaume du Cambodge (in French). Cambridge University Press. p. 263. ISBN   978-1-108-08398-0.
  29. ↑ Maître, Henri (1909). Les régions Moï du Sud indo-chinois: le plateau du Darlac (in French). Plon-Nourrit. p. 118.
  30. ↑ Jardins et rizières du Cambodge. Les enjeux du développement agricole (in French). KARTHALA Editions. 2008-02-01. p. 405. ISBN   978-2-8111-4143-1.
  31. ↑ Salemink, Oscar (2003-02-28). The Ethnography of Vietnam's Central Highlanders: A Historical Contextualization, 1850–1990. University of Hawaii Press. p. 194. ISBN   978-0-8248-2579-9.
  32. ↑ Martin, Marie Alexandrine (1994). Cambodia, a Shattered Society. University of California Press. p. 114. ISBN   978-0-520-07052-3.
  33. ↑ Smithsonian (2017). The Vietnam War: The Definitive Illustrated History. DK Publishing. pp. 64–69. ISBN   978-1465466013.
  34. ↑ Kelly, Francis John (1973). U.S. Army Special Forces, 1961-1971. Department of the Army. p. 25.
  35. ↑ Demay, Aline (2015-01-12). Tourism and Colonization in Indochina (1898-1939). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 209. ISBN   978-1-4438-7410-6.
  36. ↑ Lewis, Norman (1982). A Dragon Apparent: Travels in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Eland Books. p. 233. ISBN   978-0-907871-00-2.
  37. ↑ Solheim, Wilhelm G. (1968). Anthropology at the Eighth Pacific Science Congress of the Pacific Science Association and the Fourth Far Eastern Pre-history Congress, Quezon City, Philippines, 1953. Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii. p. 265.
  38. ↑ Goy, Bertrand (2006). Jaraï: arts de guerre et de mort chez les montagnards d'Indochine, mémoires françaises (in French). Indes savantes. p. 42. ISBN   978-2-84654-146-6.
  39. ↑ Maître, Henri (1909). Les régions Moï du Sud indo-chinois: le plateau du Darlac (in French). Plon-Nourrit. p. 117.
  40. ↑ Myths, Legends and Folk Tales from the Hmong of Laos. Linguistics Department, Macalester College. 1992. p. 78.
  41. ↑ Matras-Troubetzkoy, Jacqueline (1983). Un village en forêt: l'essartage chez les Brou du Cambodge (in French). Peeters Publishers. p. 388. ISBN   978-2-85297-071-7.
  42. ↑ Goy, Bertrand (2006). Jaraï: arts de guerre et de mort chez les montagnards d'Indochine, mémoires françaises (in French). Indes savantes. p. 22. ISBN   978-2-84654-146-6.
  43. ↑ Guilleminet, Paul (1952). Coutumier de la tribu bahnar des Sedang et des Jarai de la province de Kontum (in French). E. de Boccard. p. 480.
  44. ↑ Matras-Troubetzkoy, Jacqueline (1983). Un village en forêt: l'essartage chez les Brou du Cambodge (in French). Peeters Publishers. p. 97. ISBN   978-2-85297-071-7.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.