Bellum Siculum

Bellum Siculum
	Part of the Roman civil wars
	; Coin of Sextus Pompey, minted in Sicily in 37 or 36 BC.
Date	42–36 BC
Location	Sicily, Roman Republic
Result	Victory for the Triumvirate
Territorial; changes	Sicily taken by the Triumvirate
Belligerents
Second Triumvirate	Pompeians ; remnants of Optimates
Commanders and leaders
Octavian ; Marcus Agrippa ; Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ; Lucius Cornificius ; Titus Statilius Taurus ; Gaius Calvisius Sabinus Mark Antony ; Marcus Titius ; Gaius Furnius ; Amyntas of Galatia	Sextus Pompeius ; Menas ; Menecratus † ; Demochares; Apollophanes; Papias
Casualties and losses
	Total dead: 200,000; 1,000 warships destroyed

Last updated May 17, 2024

The Bellum Siculum^[1]^[2]^[3] (Latin for "Sicilian War") was an Ancient Roman civil war waged between 42 BC and 36 BC by the forces of the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey, the last surviving son of Pompey the Great and the last leader of the Optimate faction. The war consisted of mostly a number of naval engagements throughout the Mediterranean Sea and a land campaign primarily in Sicily that eventually ended in a victory for the Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey's death. The conflict is notable as the last stand of any organised opposition to the Triumvirate.

The result of the war settled the question whether the political ascendancy of the autocratic Triumvirs could be reversed, ending all hopes for the restoration of the constitutional government of the Roman Republic. The war however also led to the breakdown of the Triumvirate itself since Octavian was able to take advantage of discontent in Lepidus' camp to sideline his partner, leaving Octavian and Mark Antony as only rulers of the Roman world and setting the stage for the War of Actium.

Context

Sextus' father, Pompey, had been an enemy of Julius Caesar for many years, and this enmity finally boiled over in 49 BC with the beginning of Caesar's Civil War. Pompey was executed in 48 BC by the Egyptians, but Sextus and his brother, Gnaeus Pompeius, continued fighting until 45 BC, when it was clear that Caesar was the victor. After Munda, Sextus' brother was hunted down and died fighting, but Sextus himself escaped to Sicily and kept a low profile for a while.

When Julius Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44 BC, Sextus' name was placed on a proscription list formed by Lepidus, Mark Antony, and Octavian, the members of the Second Triumvirate. Those whose names were placed on the list were targeted for death and the confiscation of their property. The proscription was designed not only to fill the treasury, but to help in the Second Triumvirate's war against Brutus and Cassius, and listed all of Caesar's other enemies and their relatives.

Early victories

Upon finding his name upon this list, Sextus decided to pick up where his father had left off. He selected Sicily as his base, capturing several cities, including Tyndaris, Mylae, and the provincial capital, Messina. Other cities, such as Syracuse, gave in to Sextus' revolt and joined his forces. Sextus soon became a serious force in the civil war following Caesar's death. He amassed a formidable army and a large fleet of warships. Many slaves and friends of his father as well as remnants of the Optimate faction joined his cause, hoping to preserve the Roman Republic, which was quickly turning into an autocratic empire. The multitudes of slaves joining Sextus often came from the villas of patricians, and this desertion hurt the Romans so much that the Vestal Virgins prayed for it to stop.

With his large fleet of ships manned by Sicilian marines and commanded by capable admirals such as Menas, Menecrates and Demochares, Sextus stopped all shipments (especially those of grain) to Rome, and blockaded Italy so as to disable trade with other nations by sea. This blockade was severely crippling to the Roman army as well as to the Italian Peninsula. Finally, as the Roman people were rioting, the members of the Triumvirate decided to recognize Sextus as the ruler of Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily as long as he agreed to end the blockade and begin sending shipments of grain again. Sextus agreed, and also agreed to stop accepting fugitive slaves to his cause. This treaty was called the Pact of Misenum after Misenum where it was negotiated.

Major fighting

In 42 BC, the Triumvirate defeated Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi. Once the blockade was ended (after a short and rocky peace), the Triumvirate, especially Octavian and his right-hand man Marcus Agrippa, were able to turn their energies to Sextus, and began an aggressive offensive. Octavian tried to invade Sicily in 38 BC, but the ships were forced to go back because of bad weather.

Agrippa cut part of Via Ercolana and dug a channel to connect the Lucrine Lake to the sea, in order to change it into a harbour, called Portus Julius. The new harbour was used to train the ships for naval battles. A new fleet was built, with 20,000 oarsmen gathered by freeing slaves. The new ships were built much larger, in order to carry many more naval infantry units, which were being trained at the same time. Furthermore, Antony exchanged 20,000 infantry for his Parthian campaign with 120 ships, under the command of Titus Statilius Taurus. In July 36 BC the two fleets sailed from Italy, and another fleet, provided by the third triumvir Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, sailed from Africa, to attack Sextus' stronghold in Sicily.

In August, Agrippa was able to finally defeat Sextus in a naval battle near Mylae (modern Milazzo); the same month Octavian was defeated and seriously wounded in a battle near Taormina.

At Naulochus, Agrippa met Sextus' fleet. Both fleets were composed of 300 ships, all with artillery, but Agrippa commanded heavier units, armed with the harpax and corvus. Agrippa succeeded in blocking the more manoeuvrable ships of Sextus and, after a long and bloody fight, to defeat his enemy. Agrippa lost three ships, while 28 ships of Sextus were sunk, 17 fled, and the others burnt or captured. Meanwhile Lepidus managed to land the bulk of his army and ravaged the Sicilian countryside.

Some 200,000 men were killed and 1,000 warships destroyed in the fighting which followed, with many of the casualties being taken by Sextus and his army and navy. Tyndaris and Messina were particularly hard hit, and the area in between was ravaged.

Aftermath

In 36 BC, Sextus fled Sicily (effectively ending the war) to Miletus where, in 35 BC, he was captured and executed by Marcus Titius, one of Marcus Antonius' minions, without a trial. This was illegal, as he was a Roman citizen, and therefore entitled to a trial. This malpractice was capitalized upon by Octavian when the relationship between him and Marcus Antonius became heated.

The final end of Pompeian resistance immediately highlighted the growing distrust between the Triumvirs. When Octavian made a visit to Lepidus' camp and was hailed by soldiers as Caesar's son, Lepidus made an ill-judged move to expel his guest beyond the limits of the camp. This caused much of Lepidus' army to defect to Octavian's side and gave Octavian the excuse he needed to sideline Lepidus entirely. Lepidus was accused by Octavian of usurping power in Sicily and of attempted rebellion. Lepidus was forced to submit, exiled to Circeii and was stripped of all his offices except that of pontifex maximus . His former provinces were seized by Octavian.

Much of the vast farmland in Sicily was either ruined or left empty, and much of this land was taken and distributed to members of the legions which had fought in Sicily. What this accomplished was twofold: it served to fill Sicily with loyal, grateful inhabitants, and it promised to bring back Sicily's former productivity.

30,000 slaves were captured and returned to their masters, with another 6,000 being impaled upon wooden stakes as an example.

Historical sources

Appian: The Civil Wars. Book 5 (online copy)

Related Research Articles

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus, also known as Octavian, was the founder of the Roman Empire. He reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. The reign of Augustus initiated an imperial cult, as well as an era of imperial peace in which the Roman world was largely free of armed conflict. The Principate system of government was established during his reign and lasted until the Crisis of the Third Century.

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was a Roman general, statesman and architect who was a close friend, son-in-law and lieutenant to the Roman emperor Augustus. Agrippa is well known for his important military victories, notably the Battle of Actium in 31 BC against the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. He was also responsible for the construction of some of the most notable buildings of his era, including the original Pantheon.

Marcus Antonius, commonly known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the autocratic Roman Empire.

This article concerns the period 39 BC – 30 BC.

This article concerns the period 49 BC – 40 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">42 BC</span> Calendar year

Year 42 BC was either a common year starting on Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lepidus and Plancus. The denomination 42 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Year 36 BC was either a common year starting on Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday or a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Poplicola and Nerva. The denomination 36 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

The Second Triumvirate was an extraordinary commission and magistracy created for Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian to give them practically absolute power. It was formally constituted by law on 27 November 43 BC with a term of five years; it was renewed in 37 BC for another five years before expiring in 32 BC. Constituted by the lex Titia, the triumvirs were given broad powers to make or repeal legislation, issue judicial punishments without due process or right of appeal, and appoint all other magistrates. The triumvirs also split the Roman world into three sets of provinces.

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was a Roman general and statesman who formed the Second Triumvirate alongside Octavian and Mark Antony during the final years of the Roman Republic. Lepidus had previously been a close ally of Julius Caesar. He was also the last pontifex maximus before the Roman Empire, and (presumably) the last interrex and magister equitum to hold military command.

The Battle of Philippi was the final battle in the Liberators' civil war between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian and the leaders of Julius Caesar's assassination, Brutus and Cassius, in 42 BC, at Philippi in Macedonia. The Second Triumvirate declared the civil war ostensibly to avenge Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, but the underlying cause was a long-brewing conflict between the so-called Optimates and the so-called Populares.

Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius, also known in English as Sextus Pompey, was a Roman military leader who, throughout his life, upheld the cause of his father, Pompey the Great, against Julius Caesar and his supporters during the last civil wars of the Roman Republic.

The naval Battle of Naulochus was fought on 3 September 36 BC between the fleets of Sextus Pompeius and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, off Naulochus, Sicily. The victory of Agrippa, admiral of Octavian, marked the end of the Pompeian resistance to the Second Triumvirate.

Sicilia was the first province acquired by the Roman Republic, encompassing the island of Sicily. The western part of the island was brought under Roman control in 241 BC at the conclusion of the First Punic War with Carthage. A praetor was regularly assigned to the island from c. 227 BC. The Kingdom of Syracuse under Hieron II remained an independent ally of Rome until its defeat in 212 BC during the Second Punic War. Thereafter the province included the whole of the island of Sicily, the island of Malta, and the smaller island groups.

The Liberators' civil war was started by the Second Triumvirate to avenge Julius Caesar's assassination. The war was fought by the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian against the forces of Caesar's assassins, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, referred to as the Liberatores. The latter were defeated by the Triumvirs at the Battle of Philippi in October 42 BC, and committed suicide. Brutus committed suicide after the second part of the battle.

The Pact of Misenum was a treaty to end the naval blockade of the Italian Peninsula during the Sicilian revolt. The pact was signed in 39 BC between Sextus Pompeius and the members of the Second Triumvirate – specifically, Mark Antony and Octavian Caesar, the later Roman Emperor Augustus. The triumvirs allowed Sextus Pompeius to retain his control of Sicily and Sardinia and also granted him control of Corsica and the Peloponnesus.

Menas, also known as Menodorus, served under Sextus Pompey during the 1st Century BC Roman civil wars.

Marcus Titius was a Roman politician and commander at the end of the Roman Republic.

Quintus Nasidius, sometimes referred to as Lucius Nasidius, was a Roman naval commander who lived during the 1st century BC and sided with the Optimates during Caesar's Civil War.

The Battle of Mylae took place in 36 BC during the War between Sextus Pompey and the Second Triumvirate, between the Second Triumvirate under the command of Agrippa and the Pompeians under the command of Sextus Pompey led by Papias, which occurred in the city of Mylae, off the north coast of Sicily. The battle resulted in a victory for the Second Triumvirate.

References

↑ Suetonius, Divus Augustus 9
↑ Gowing, Alain M. (2002). Powell, Anton; Welch, Kathryn (eds.). Sextus Pompeius . London: Classical Press of Wales. p. 205. ISBN 9780715631270. Archived from the original on September 3, 2023. Retrieved September 3, 2023.
↑ Lange, Carsten Hjort (2016). Triumphs in the Age of Civil War . Bloomsbury. pp. 118–119. ISBN 9781474267878. Archived from the original on September 3, 2023. Retrieved September 4, 2023.

Si Sheppard: Actium 31 BC: Downfall of Antony and Cleopatra. Osprey Publishing, 2009, ISBN 978-1-84603-405-3, pp. 6–18 ( excerpt , p. 6, at Google Books)
Spencer C. Tucker (ed.): A Global Chronology of Conflict. ABC-CLIO, 2009, ISBN 978-1-85109-672-5, p. 131 ( excerpt , p. 131, at Google Books)
Anthony Everett: Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. Random House, 2006, ISBN 978-1-58836-555-2, pp. 116–143 ( excerpt , p. 116, at Google Books)
Shelley C. Stone, III: Sextus Pompey, Octavian and Sicily. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Jan., 1983), pp. 11–22 (JSTOR)

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.

[1] Suetonius, Divus Augustus 9

[2] Gowing, Alain M. (2002). Powell, Anton; Welch, Kathryn (eds.). Sextus Pompeius . London: Classical Press of Wales. p. 205. ISBN 9780715631270. Archived from the original on September 3, 2023. Retrieved September 3, 2023.

[3] Lange, Carsten Hjort (2016). Triumphs in the Age of Civil War . Bloomsbury. pp. 118–119. ISBN 9781474267878. Archived from the original on September 3, 2023. Retrieved September 4, 2023.

[1]

[2]

[3]

v t e Ancient Roman wars
Wars of the Roman Republic	Roman conquest of Italy Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman–Volscian wars Roman–Sabine wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Social War Roman–Gallic wars Punic Wars First Second Third Illyro-Roman Wars Macedonian Wars First Second Third Fourth Roman–Seleucid war Galatian War Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula Celtiberian Wars Lusitanian War Numantine War Sertorian War Cantabrian Wars Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars First Second Third Bellum Octavianum Sulla's civil war Mithridatic Wars First Second Third Gallic Wars Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain Roman–Parthian Wars Caesar's civil war War of Mutina Liberators' civil war Bellum Siculum Perusine War War of Actium
Wars of the Roman Empire	Germanic wars Marcomannic Wars Gothic War Roman conquest of Britain Boudican revolt Armenian War Civil war of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Roman–Persian Wars Civil wars of the Third Century Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire
Military history of ancient Rome