Body language of dogs

Last updated

The body language of dogs is one form of non-verbal communication whereby dogs can express emotions and intentions through bodily movements. [1] [2] It refers to the interpretation of posture and behaviour of species in the genus Canis . This form of visual communication is generally used for identifying emotions and intentions of domestic dogs, though it can also be applied to wild canines such as wolves. [3] Understanding the body language of dogs is particularly important in preventing dog bites, especially of children. [4] This communication can occur between dogs, or during a dog-human interaction. Such movements primarily involve the tail, the ears, and the head/body. [1] Tail-wagging is a common tail movement used by dogs to communicate. [5] [6] Additionally, ear flattening or heightening are typical movements made using the ears. [2] In terms of the head/body, it is of interest to study turning of the head, as well as the overall posture of the dog. [1]

Contents

Because dogs communicate differently from humans, it is more difficult for humans to interpret their emotional states. By focusing on the combinations of motions made by dogs, and studying the aftermath of such sequences, humans are able to attribute different emotional states (i.e., contentment, fear, or aggression) as a result of the dog's body language. [1]

By properly interpreting the body language of dogs, not only are humans able to decipher what a dog is trying to communicate, but are also able to recognize warning signs prior to an attack, decreasing the number of dog bite occurrences. [1] [2] [7]

It is important to note that the body language under investigation can be divided into three different forms of cues: behavioural, holistic, and other. [2] While behavioural cues focus primarily on studying movements without considering the underlying reasoning behind such movements, holistic cues are ones that occur as a result of either expressing emotions, or communicating intentions. [2] [8]

Understanding the body language of dogs can also aid in optimal obedience training, as observation of body language may reveal when the dog is most motivated and therefore provides a time-frame whereby dogs will learn more readily. [9]

Consequences of ignoring body language of dogs

In general, accurately assessing the body language of dogs is quite beneficial as it allows humans to react appropriately to emotions and intentions of the dog. [1] Thus, it fosters successful companionship between the dog owner and pet. Alternatively, ignoring the body language of dogs can pose as a threat for not only humans, but for dogs too. [1] [2] [10]

Properly assessing body language can predict whether or not the dog will bite. [2] [10] Biting occurrences most often involve small children, where bites often affect facial areas. [2] In comparison, bites in adults are less serious, usually involving extremities. [7] [11] Warning signals can be identified through evaluating the body language of dogs accordingly. [1] [2] [7] [10] [11] Oftentimes, people struggle when identifying the body motions of a fearful/anxious dog, incorrectly associating the motions with behaviours of approachable/relaxed dogs. [2] This misinterpretation is most often one that results in the occurrence of biting.

Misreading the warning signs portrayed by dogs can also result in behavioural problems. [1] Euthanasia can be avoided in cases where such behavioural issues occur due to humans ignoring the warning signs expressed by a dog. [1] [2]

Dog displaying aggressive body language; note upright head position, staring, clenched teeth, and upright ears pointing forward 2003-09-08 Dog showing aggression.jpg
Dog displaying aggressive body language; note upright head position, staring, clenched teeth, and upright ears pointing forward

The position and movement, or lack thereof, of a dog's head can indicate a variety of emotional states. If the head is stationary, the main identifying difference is whether the head is upright or lowered. An upright head signifies attentiveness, dominance, or aggression, while a lowered head signifies fear or submission. A moving head may indicate that a dog is feeling playful. [12]

A dog communicates by altering the position of its head. When the head is held in an erect position this could indicate that is approachable, attentive, curious, or aggressive. Turning the head away may indicate fear, but is also recognized as a calming signal. [13] A dominant dog will display an upright posture and/or stiff legs. [13] The head can be held in a high position convey being approachable, alert, aggressive, or displaying dominance.

Tilted head

Female brindle Boxer tilting head Female Brindle boxer.jpg
Female brindle Boxer tilting head

Another common position is a tilted head. While the reason for this head positioning has not been determined, it has been suggested that this behaviour shows that a dog is trying to listen more effectively or is anticipating a reward. [14]

Eyes

A dog's use of eye contact and eye movements can communicate emotions and intentions. Prolonged eye contact or staring are indicators of aggression, especially when combined with body stiffness. [15] Avoiding eye contact, or looking down, is a submissive dog behaviour. [12]

Mouth

Dogs can express a range of emotions based on movements of the teeth and lips. In an aggressive dog, the lips curl back to expose clenched teeth, which warns others of their ferocity. Conversely, an open mouth showing unclenched teeth indicates that a dog is in a playful or relaxed mood. [16]

Ears

The ears of a dog can express a variety of emotions based on their position or the direction they are facing. Ear positions are similar to head positions with respect to the feelings they display. Ears that are upright and facing forward indicate dominance or aggression, while ears that are pulled back and facing downward indicate fear or submission. [12] Unfortunately, not all dogs are able to communicate with their ears. Breeds with drooping ears, cropped ears, or ears that are permanently erect are mostly or completely unable to use their ears to display emotions. [16]

Tail

Dog displaying playful body language; note open mouth showing unclenched teeth, wagging tail, and play bow posture Vorderkoerpertiefstellung THWZ.jpg
Dog displaying playful body language; note open mouth showing unclenched teeth, wagging tail, and play bow posture

The position and movement of a dog's tail are another effective indicator of emotions and intentions. Tail wagging is one of the most common dog behaviours that is used to convey emotion, but wagging can signify different things depending on the nature of the movement. If a dog's tail is held high while it wags, this is indicative of dominance, however if the high tail moves in a stiff wagging motion, this is indicative of aggression. The tail being positioned low between the hind legs, usually stationary, is an indication of fear or submission. If a dog's tail is wagging freely and vigorously, this displays a friendly or playful mood. [12] [15] Similar to ear position, tail positions and movements may be mostly or completely ineffective in dog breeds with short, tightly curled, or docked tails. [16]

The tail of a dog can communicate a number of emotions and intentions. [17] Tail wagging by dogs is familiar to those who interact with them. When a dog wags its tail, most people interpret this as the dog expressing happiness and friendliness. Though indeed tail wagging can express these positive emotions, it can also be an indication of fear, insecurity, the challenging of dominance, or a warning sign that the dog may bite. [1] [2] Considerable effort has been put in to describing this aspect of dog behaviour, whereby it can now be broken down into two conditions: right-biased tail wagging, and left-biased tail wagging. Research has demonstrated that dogs display asymmetric tail wagging as a result of distinctive emotional stimuli. [5] [6]

Right-biased tail wagging

Right-biased tail wags are ones biased to the right side of a dog's body, as viewed from the rear. [5] Studies show that dogs were relaxed when presented with a conspecific showing right-biased tail wagging, illustrating right-biased tail wagging as communicating positive feelings, or demonstrate an approach response. [5] [6] Moreover, dogs show this tail-wagging behaviour upon presentation of their owner. [5]

Left-biased tail wagging

Left-biased tail wags are ones biased to the left side of a dog's body, as viewed from the rear. [5] Dogs that were presented with a conspecific displaying this tail wagging behaviour were more stressed (revealed through heightened cardiac activity as well as behaviour) in comparison to dogs presented with conspecifics showing right-biased tail wagging behaviour. [6] This increased emotional response suggest that left-biased tail wagging communicates negative feelings, or demonstrates a withdrawal response. [5] [6] Furthermore, dogs show this tail wagging behaviour in the presence of an unfamiliar, dominant conspecific. [5]

Slow versus high-speed

A slow-wagging tail is quite different than a high-speed wagging tail. [1] [5] The former display commonly denotes a less social signal, whereas the latter often signifies sociality in dogs. [1]

Body position

Analysing a dog's body as a whole unit is important in determining a dog's emotions. A standing, upright position can indicate dominance, or suggests aggression if the body is stiff. A withdrawn body position with weight distributed to the hind end of a dog suggests fear. [12] [15] The difference between active submission and passive submission can be discerned based on a dog's posture; active submission is demonstrated by keeping the body low to the ground, while passive submission is demonstrated by lying on the ground with the underbelly exposed. [16]

A dog can alter its body position so that the front of the body is in a crouched position with the front legs lower than the back legs. This can indicate a higher level of aggression that can be the precursor to an attack. If this position is accompanied by snarling, a wrinkled nose, dilated pupils, the tail tucked under the body and between the back legs, and raised hair along the dog's back, the dog is highly aggressive and fearful. [17] In comparison, submissiveness may be revealed by lowering the body or rolling onto the side, revealing the underbelly. [13]

Specific behaviours

A variety of behaviours exhibited by dogs can be interpreted to convey certain emotions. A well-known behaviour associated with playful moods in dogs is known as a play bow, where a dog lowers its forelimbs and chest while raising its hind end and wagging its tail. This may be followed with other playful actions, such as bouncing movements and face pawing. [16] In young dogs, urination can be a behaviour associated with submission. This occurs when eye contact is made between a dog and its owner, followed by the dog urinating in an attempt to gain approval. [18]

Common emotional states

A relaxed dog will display upward ear position, with the tail positioned downward. [1] In comparison, an anxious or fearful dog will display a tense body posture, backward position of the ears, head turning, and/or lip smacking. The tail may also be tucked between the hind legs. [1] [2] Finally, an aggressive dog will display a stiff tail (which may be wagging slowly), a forward ear position, as well as a wrinkled nose. [1] [2] [7] If these characteristics are present, it is very important to respond accordingly in order to avoid attack. Aggression may occur an inappropriate response is made following warning signals. [2] For example, children often misinterpret the body language of dogs, especially when such motions precede an aggressive behaviour. As a result of this misinterpretation, children are most often the victims of dog bites. [1] [2] [7] [10] [11]

Puppies have other postures that disappear as the dog ages. They can play roughly with their litter mates while rarely drawing blood. The mother remains very tolerant when the puppies chew on her. [19]

Types of cues

Behavioural cues

Behavioral cues are simply signals that are communicated through the behavior of a dog. These include specific movements involving the body posture, the ears, the head/eyes, and the tail. [2] Behavioral cues are simply assessing the movements of a dog, without considering the emotions and/or intentions underlying such movements. For example, tail wagging is a behavioral cue.

Holistic cues

Holistic cues are approximate evaluations of the observed overall state of the animal. [2] [20] Holistic cues can be subdivided into two categories: emotional, and intentional. [2] [20] Consistent with recent research that suggests a dog's ability to feel happy, angry, or sad, emotional cues intend to describe the dog's feelings regarding a certain situation. [2] For example, assuming that a dog is fearful based primarily on the position of the tail. Intentional cues are ones that are expressed through body language that communicate the overall intention of the dog. [2] These are cues that reveal why the animal is acting a certain way. For example, the display of a play-bow posture may be described as occurring in order to initiate play (an intention). [8]

Other

Other cues are any type of cue that is not behavioral or holistic. These include miscellaneous cues, or the overall absence of cues. [2]

Learning achievement

Understanding and properly interpreting the characteristics displayed by dogs during learning can significantly aid in successive obedience training. [9] As human-dog interactions occur quite frequently, a lack of obedience training can lead to unwanted behavioural problems. Thus, it is very important for effective training to occur.

Successful training in dogs requires the owner/trainer to be able to correctly interpret the learning abilities of the dog. It is well established that body language can reveal emotions and moods of dogs, [1] [2] [5] [21] which can be quite helpful when assessing dogs during training.

Studies have shown that the obedience training of domestic dogs can be explained using operant conditioning methods. [9] Like humans, concentration as well as motivation must be present in order for learning to occur. [9] Therefore, understanding the dog's motivation and emotional states may result in more successful training. Attention to others can be assessed in dogs by measuring the amount of eye contact made with the trainer, as well as the position of the ears. [9] It has been found that dogs that make eye contact with the trainer, as well as display a forward ear position, are most successful in learning achievement during operant conditioning. [9]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal communication</span> Transfer of information from animal to animal

Animal communication is the transfer of information from one or a group of animals to one or more other animals that affects the current or future behavior of the receivers. Information may be sent intentionally, as in a courtship display, or unintentionally, as in the transfer of scent from predator to prey with kairomones. Information may be transferred to an "audience" of several receivers. Animal communication is a rapidly growing area of study in disciplines including animal behavior, sociology, neurology and animal cognition. Many aspects of animal behavior, such as symbolic name use, emotional expression, learning and sexual behavior, are being understood in new ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nonverbal communication</span> Interpersonal communication through wordless (mostly visual) cues

Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the transmission of messages or signals through a nonverbal platform such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, use of objects and body language. It includes the use of social cues, kinesics, distance (proxemics) and physical environments/appearance, of voice (paralanguage) and of touch (haptics). A signal has three different parts to it, including the basic signal, what the signal is trying to convey, and how it is interpreted. These signals that are transmitted to the receiver depend highly on the knowledge and empathy that this individual has. It can also include the use of time (chronemics) and eye contact and the actions of looking while talking and listening, frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate (oculesics).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Docking (dog)</span> Removal of a dogs tail

Docking is the removal of portions of an animal's tail. While docking and bobbing are more commonly used to refer to removal of the tail, the term cropping is used in reference to the ears. Tail docking occurs in one of two ways. The first involves constricting the blood supply to the tail with a rubber ligature for a few days until the tail falls off. The second involves the severance of the tail with surgical scissors or a scalpel. The length to which tails are docked varies by breed, and is often specified in the breed standard.

Dog intelligence or dog cognition is the process in dogs of acquiring information and conceptual skills, and storing them in memory, retrieving, combining and comparing them, and using them in new situations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog communication</span> Communication of dogs with other dogs and as well as humans

Dog communication is the transfer of information between dogs, as well as between dogs and humans. Behaviors associated with dog communication are categorized into visual and vocal. Visual communication includes mouth shape and head position, licking and sniffing, ear and tail positioning, eye gaze, facial expression, and body posture. Dog vocalizations, or auditory communication, can include barks, growls, howls, whines and whimpers, screams, pants and sighs. Dogs also communicate via gustatory communication, utilizing scent and pheromones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog aggression</span> Behavior in dogs

Dog aggression expressed by dogs is considered to be normal behaviour and various types of aggression are influenced by a dog's environment and genetic predisposition. Dogs commonly display possessive aggression when defending resources or themselves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dobermann</span> Black and tan dog breed from Germany

The Dobermann, or Doberman Pinscher in the U.S. and Canada, is a medium-large breed of domestic dog that was originally developed around 1890 by Louis Dobermann, a tax collector from Germany. The Dobermann has a long muzzle. It stands on its pads and is not usually heavy-footed. Ideally, they have an even and graceful gait. Traditionally, the ears are cropped and posted and the tail is docked. However, in some countries, these procedures are now illegal and it is often considered cruel and unnecessary. Dobermanns have markings on the chest, paws/legs, muzzle, above the eyes, and underneath the tail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emotion in animals</span> Research into similarities between animal and human emotions

Emotion is defined as any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content. The existence and nature of emotions in non-human animals are believed to be correlated with those of humans and to have evolved from the same mechanisms. Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to write about the subject, and his observational approach has since developed into a more robust, hypothesis-driven, scientific approach. Cognitive bias tests and learned helplessness models have shown feelings of optimism and pessimism in a wide range of species, including rats, dogs, cats, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings, pigs, and honeybees. Jaak Panksepp played a large role in the study of animal emotion, basing his research on the neurological aspect. Mentioning seven core emotional feelings reflected through a variety of neuro-dynamic limbic emotional action systems, including seeking, fear, rage, lust, care, panic and play. Through brain stimulation and pharmacological challenges, such emotional responses can be effectively monitored.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat communication</span> Feline means of sending or receiving information

Cats need to communicate with each other for bonding, and relating with each other; they need to collaborate, play, and share resources. When they communicate with humans, they do so to get what they need or want, such as food, affection, or play.

Growling is a low, guttural vocalization produced by animals as an aggressive warning but can also be found in other contexts such as playful behaviors or mating. Different animals will use growling in specific contexts as a form of communication. In humans, low or dull rumbling noises may also be emitted when they are discontent with something or they are angry, although this human sound is often termed "groaning".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog behavior</span> Internally coordinated responses of dogs to internal and external stimuli

Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses of individuals or groups of domestic dogs to internal and external stimuli. It has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans and their lifestyles. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a wide range of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shark agonistic display</span> Animal behavior

Agonism is a broad term which encompasses many behaviours that result from, or are triggered by biological conflict between competing organisms. Approximately 23 shark species are capable of producing such displays when threatened by intraspecific or interspecific competitors, as an evolutionary strategy to avoid unnecessary combat. The behavioural, postural, social and kinetic elements which comprise this complex, ritualized display can be easily distinguished from normal, or non-display behaviour, considered typical of that species' life history. The display itself confers pertinent information to the foe regarding the displayer's physical fitness, body size, inborn biological weaponry, confidence and determination to fight. This behaviour is advantageous because it is much less biologically taxing for an individual to display its intention to fight than the injuries it would sustain during conflict, which is why agonistic displays have been reinforced through evolutionary time, as an adaptation to personal fitness. Agonistic displays are essential to the social dynamics of many biological taxa, extending far beyond sharks.

Cat behavior is a cat's behavior and responses to events and other stimuli. Cat behavior includes body language, elimination habits, aggression, play, communication, hunting, grooming, urine marking, and face rubbing. It varies among individuals, colonies, and breeds.

Non-verbal leakage is a form of non-verbal behavior that occurs when a person verbalizes one thing, but their body language indicates another, common forms of which include facial movements and hand-to-face gestures. The term "non-verbal leakage" got its origin in literature in 1968, leading to many subsequent studies on the topic throughout the 1970s, with related studies continuing today.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bite inhibition</span>

Bite inhibition, sometimes referred to as a soft mouth, is a behavior in carnivorans whereby the animal learns to moderate the strength of its bite. It is an important factor in the socialization of pets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human–canine bond</span> Interspecies relationship

Human–canine bonding is the relationship between dogs and humans. This relationship can be traced back to at least 15,000 years ago, to the Bonn-Oberkassel dog, who was found buried alongside two humans. For centuries, dogs have been considered man's best friend. This is most evident in western countries, such as the United States, where over 48% of households have a pet dog.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interspecies friendship</span> Bond formed between animals of different species

An interspecies friendship is a nonsexual bond that is formed between animals of different species. Numerous cases of interspecies friendships among wild and domesticated animals have been reported and documented with photography and video. Domestication of animals has led to interspecies friendships between species that would never naturally exist together. In many cases of interspecies friendship, the species are not normally seen together, and sometimes, one is of a species that ordinarily preys on the other in nature.

Calming signals is a term conceived by Norwegian dog trainer and canine ethologist, Turid Rugaas, to describe the patterns of behavior used by dogs when interacting with each other in environments that cause heightened stress and when conveying their desires or intentions. The term has been used interchangeably with "appeasement signals." Calming signals, or appeasement signals, are communicative cues used by dogs to de-escalate aggressive encounters or to prevent the development of aggressive encounters completely. Calming signals are performed by one dog and directed towards one or more individual(s), which could be dogs or individuals of other species, such as humans. When calming signals are ignored, a dog may display warning signals of aggression, and this has the potential to escalate to outright conflict between individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tail wagging by dogs</span>

Tail wagging is the behavior of the dog observed as its tail moves back and forth in the same plane. Within Canidae, specifically Canis lupus familiaris, the tail plays multiple roles, which can include balance, and communication. It is considered a social signal. The behaviour can be categorized by vigorous movement or slight movement of the tip of the tail. Tail wagging can also occur in circular motions, and when the tail is held at maximum height, neutral height, or between the legs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wolf communication</span> Overview about the communication of wolves

Wolves communicate using vocalizations, body postures, scent, touch, and taste. The lunar phases have no effect on wolf vocalisation. Despite popular belief, wolves do not howl at the Moon. Gray wolves howl to assemble the pack, usually before and after hunts, to pass on an alarm particularly at a den site, to locate each other during a storm or while crossing unfamiliar territory, and to communicate across great distances. Other vocalisations include growls, barks and whines. Wolves do not bark as loudly or continuously as dogs do but they bark a few times and then retreat from a perceived danger. Aggressive or self-assertive wolves are characterized by their slow and deliberate movements, high body posture and raised hackles, while submissive ones carry their bodies low, sleeken their fur, and lower their ears and tail. Raised leg urination is considered to be one of the most important forms of scent communication in the wolf, making up 60–80% of all scent marks observed.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pierson, Melissa Holbrook (2020). "Learning How to Listen to Dog Language --- They may not use words, but our canine companions say a lot more than we realize with their bodies". The Wall Street Journal.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Demirbas, Yasemin Salgirli; Ozturk, Hakan; Emre, Bahri; Kockaya, Mustafa; Ozvardar, Tarkan; Scott, Alison (2016-12-30). "Adults' Ability to Interpret Canine Body Language during a Dog–Child Interaction". Anthrozoös. 29 (4): 581–596. doi:10.1080/08927936.2016.1228750. ISSN   0892-7936. S2CID   152049120.
  3. ↑ Mech, L. David; Smith, Douglas W.; MacNulty, Daniel R. (22 May 2015). Wolves on the Hunt : The Behavior of Wolves Hunting Wild Prey. University of Chicago Press. ISBN   9780226255149.
  4. ↑ Dixon, Cinnamon A.; Mahabee-Gittens, E. Melinda; Hart, Kimberly W.; Lindsell, Christopher J. (February 2012). "Dog Bite Prevention: An Assessment of Child Knowledge". The Journal of Pediatrics. 160 (2): 337–341. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2011.07.016. PMC   3258302 . PMID   21885057.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Quaranta, A.; Siniscalchi, M.; Vallortigara, G. (2007). "Asymmetric tail-wagging responses by dogs to different emotive stimuli". Current Biology. 17 (6): R199–R201. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007.02.008 . PMID   17371755.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Siniscalchi, Marcello; Lusito, Rita; Vallortigara, Giorgio; Quaranta, Angelo (2013). "Seeing Left- or Right-Asymmetric Tail Wagging Produces Different Emotional Responses in Dogs". Current Biology. 23 (22): 2279–2282. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.027 . PMID   24184108.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Gershman, Kenneth; Sacks, Jeffrey; Wright, John (1994). "Which dogs bite? A case-control study of risk factors". Pediatrics. 93 (6): 913–917. doi:10.1542/peds.93.6.913. S2CID   10994085 – via Highwire Press American Academy of Pediatrics.
  8. 1 2 Valentin, Giancarlo; Alcaidinho, Joelle; Howard, Ayanna; Jackson, Melody M.; Starner, Thad (2015). Towards a Canine-human Communication System Based on Head Gestures. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology. ACE '15. New York, NY, USA: ACM. pp. 65:1–65:9. doi:10.1145/2832932.2837016. hdl:1853/54527. ISBN   9781450338523. S2CID   11378679.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hasegawa, Masashi; Ohtani, Nobuyo; Ohta, Mitsuaki (2014-02-27). "Dogs' Body Language Relevant to Learning Achievement". Animals. 4 (1): 45–58. doi: 10.3390/ani4010045 . PMC   4494300 . PMID   26479883.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Love, M.; Overall, K. L. (2001-08-15). "How anticipating relationships between dogs and children can help prevent disasters". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 219 (4): 446–453. doi:10.2460/javma.2001.219.446. ISSN   0003-1488. PMID   11518169.
  11. 1 2 3 Weiss, H; Friedman, D; Coben, J (1998). "Incidence of dog bite injuries treated in emergency departments". Journal of the American Medical Association. 279 (3): 51–53. doi: 10.1001/jama.279.1.51 . PMID   9424044.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Simpson, Barbara Sherman (May 1997). "Canine Communication". Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice. 27 (3): 445–464. doi:10.1016/S0195-5616(97)50048-9. PMID   9170629.
  13. 1 2 3 Coren, Stanley (2000). How To Speak Dog: Mastering the Art of Dog-Human Communication. New York: Simon & Schuster.
  14. ↑ Coren, Stanley. "Why Do Some Dogs Tilt Their Heads When We Talk to Them?". Psychology Today. Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
  15. 1 2 3 Lakestani, Nelly N.; Donaldson, Morag L.; Waran, Natalie (2014). "Interpretation of Dog Behavior by Children and Young Adults". Anthrozoös. 27 (1): 80. doi:10.2752/175303714X13837396326413. S2CID   143707150.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Serpell, James (2016). The Domestic Dog (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 133–153. ISBN   9781139161800.
  17. 1 2 "How To Read Your Dog's Body Language". Dog Magazine. Archived from the original on September 1, 2020. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
  18. ↑ Swager, Peggy (August 2002). "The overly submissive dog". AKC Gazette. 119 (8): 20–21.
  19. ↑ Alderton, David, 1956- (2011). The dog decoder : the essential guide to understanding your dog's behavior. Barron's Educational Series, Inc. (First edition for North America ed.). Hauppage, NY. pp. 76–77. ISBN   9780764147258. OCLC   704376631.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. 1 2 Tami, Gabriella; Gallagher, Anne (2009). "Description of the behaviour of domestic dog (Canis familiaris) by experienced and inexperienced people". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 120 (3–4): 159–169. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2009.06.009.
  21. ↑ Broom, D.M. (2016). "Considering animals' feelings: Précis of Sentience and Animal Welfare". Animal Sentience (5). doi: 10.51291/2377-7478.1015 .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.