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Murad IV was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640, known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods. Murad IV was born in Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan. He was brought to power by a palace conspiracy when he was just 11 years old, and he succeeded his uncle Mustafa I. Until he assumed absolute power on 18 May 1632, the empire was ruled by his mother, Kösem Sultan, as nāʾib-i salṭanat (regent). His reign is most notable for the Ottoman–Safavid War, of which the outcome would partition the Caucasus between the two Imperial powers for around two centuries, while it also roughly laid the foundation for the current Turkey–Iran–Iraq borders.
The Ottoman Empire, historically and colloquially known as the Turkish Empire, was an empire that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries. The empire also controlled an eastern region of Central Europe from the 16th to the late 17th century.
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Hadım Ali Pasha, also known as Atik Ali Pasha, was an Ottoman statesman and eunuch of Bosnian origin. He served as governor of Rumeli, and led the Ottoman army in the Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1485–1491, but was defeated at Adana in 1488. He was then named Grand Vizier from 1501 to 1503, and again from 1509 to 1511. During his latter tenure, he led the suppression of the Alevi-led Şahkulu Rebellion, but died in battle near Sivas along with the rebel leader Şahkulu himself.
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The Transformation of the Ottoman Empire, also known as the Era of Transformation, constitutes a period in the history of the Ottoman Empire from c. 1550 to c. 1700, spanning roughly from the end of the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent to the Treaty of Karlowitz at the conclusion of the War of the Holy League. This period was characterized by numerous dramatic political, social, and economic changes, which resulted in the empire shifting from an expansionist, patrimonial state into a bureaucratic empire based on an ideology of upholding justice and acting as the protector of Sunni Islam. These changes were in large part prompted by a series of political and economic crises in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, resulting from inflation, warfare, and political factionalism. Yet despite these crises the empire remained strong both politically and economically, and continued to adapt to the challenges of a changing world. The 17th century was once characterized as a period of decline for the Ottomans, but since the 1980s historians of the Ottoman Empire have increasingly rejected that characterization, identifying it instead as a period of crisis, adaptation, and transformation.
The Ghaza or Ghazi thesis is a historical paradigm first formulated by Paul Wittek which has been used to interpret the nature of the Ottoman Empire during the earliest period of its history, the fourteenth century, and its subsequent history. The thesis addresses the question of how the Ottomans were able to expand from a small principality on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire into a centralized, intercontinental empire. According to the Ghaza thesis, the Ottomans accomplished this by attracting recruits to fight for them in the name of Islamic holy war against the non-believers. Such a warrior was known in Ottoman Turkish as a ghazi, and thus this thesis sees the early Ottoman state as a "Ghazi State," defined by an ideology of holy war. The Ghaza Thesis dominated early Ottoman historiography throughout much of the twentieth century before coming under increasing criticism beginning in the 1980s. Historians now generally reject the Ghaza Thesis, and consequently the idea that Ottoman expansion was primarily fueled by holy war, but disagree about what hypothesis to replace it with.
Alan Mikhail is an American historian who is a professor of history at Yale University. His work centers on the history of the Ottoman Empire.
References
- ↑ "How the Ottomans shaped London". BBC. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
- ↑ Imber, Colin (2006). "Review of Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 69 (2): 317–319. doi:10.1017/S0041977X06220147. ISSN 0041-977X. JSTOR 20182042. S2CID 162933983.
- ↑ "Aksan on Finkel, 'Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923' | H-Turk | H-Net". networks.h-net.org. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
- ↑ "Buying the Guide Book". www.cultureroutesinturkey.com. Archived from the original on 23 January 2012.
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