Catharanthus roseus

Last updated

Catharanthus roseus
bRssttiknnaay' ny'ntaaraa.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Gentianales
Family: Apocynaceae
Genus: Catharanthus
Species:
C. roseus
Binomial name
Catharanthus roseus
Synonyms
  • Vinca rosea L.
  • Pervinca rosea (L.) Gaterau
  • Lochnera rosea (L.) Rchb. ex Spach
  • Ammocallis rosea (L.) Small

(See also Synonyms section)

A white colored, Catharanthus Roseus flower.jpg

Catharanthus roseus, commonly known as bright eyes, Cape periwinkle, graveyard plant, Madagascar periwinkle, old maid, pink periwinkle, rose periwinkle, [2] is a perennial species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native and endemic to Madagascar, but is grown elsewhere as an ornamental and medicinal plant, and now has a pantropical distribution. It is a source of the drugs vincristine and vinblastine, used to treat cancer. [3] It was formerly included in the genus Vinca as Vinca rosea.

Contents

It has many vernacular names among which are arivotaombelona or rivotambelona, tonga, tongatse or trongatse, tsimatiririnina, and vonenina. [4]

Taxonomy

Two varieties are recognized

Synonymy for this variety
Catharanthus roseus var. angustus Steenis ex Bakhuizen f. [5]
Catharanthus roseus var. albus G.Don [6]
Catharanthus roseus var. occellatus G.Don [6]
Catharanthus roseus var. nanus Markgr. [7]
Lochnera rosea f. alba (G.Don) Woodson [8]
Lochnera rosea var. ocellata (G.Don) Woodson
Synonymy for this variety
Catharanthus roseus var. nanus Markgr. [10]
Lochnera rosea var. angusta Steenis [11]

Description

In morning Close-up view of Catharanthus roseus (known as Nayantara in Bengali) in West Bengal, India, photographed by Yogabrata Chakraborty, on October 2, 2021.jpg
In morning

Catharanthus roseus is an evergreen subshrub or herbaceous plant growing 1 m (39 in) tall. The leaves are oval to oblong, 2.5–9 cm (1.0–3.5 in) long and 1–3.5 cm (0.4–1.4 in) wide, glossy green, hairless, with a pale midrib and a short petiole 1–1.8 cm (0.4–0.7 in) long; they are arranged in opposite pairs. The flowers range from white with a yellow or red center to dark pink with a darker red center, with a basal tube 2.5–3 cm (1.0–1.2 in) long and a corolla 2–5 cm (0.8–2.0 in) diameter with five petal-like lobes. The fruit is a pair of follicles 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) long and 3 mm (0.1 in) wide. [12] [13] [14] [15]

Ecology

In its natural range along the dry coasts of southern Madagascar, Catharanthus roseus is considered weedy and invasive, often self-seeding prolifically in disturbed areas along roadsides and in fallow fields. [16] [17] It is also, however, widely cultivated and is naturalized in subtropical and tropical areas of the world such as Australia, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, and the United States. [12] It is so well adapted to growth in Australia that it is listed as a noxious weed in Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory, [18] and also in parts of eastern Queensland. [19]

Pale Pink with Red Centre Cultivar Catharanthus roseus 105.jpg
Pale Pink with Red Centre Cultivar

Cultivation

As an ornamental plant, it is appreciated for its hardiness in dry and nutritionally deficient conditions, popular in subtropical gardens where temperatures never fall below 5–7 °C (41–45 °F), and as a warm-season bedding plant in temperate gardens. It is noted for its long flowering period, throughout the year in tropical conditions, and from spring to late autumn, in warm temperate climates. Full sun and well-drained soil are preferred. Numerous cultivars have been selected, for variation in flower colour (white, mauve, peach, scarlet, and reddish-orange), and also for tolerance of cooler growing conditions in temperate regions.

Notable cultivars include 'Albus' (white flowers), 'Grape Cooler' (rose-pink; cool-tolerant), the Ocellatus Group (various colours), and 'Peppermint Cooler' (white with a red centre; cool-tolerant). [12]

In the U.S. it often remains identified as "Vinca" although botanists have shifted its identification and it often can be seen growing along roadsides in the south.

In the United Kingdom it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit [20] (confirmed 2017). [21]

Uses

Traditional

In Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine) the extracts of its roots and shoots, although poisonous, are used against several diseases. In traditional Chinese medicine, extracts from it have been used against numerous diseases, including diabetes, malaria, and Hodgkin's lymphoma. [22] [13] In the 1950s, vinca alkaloids, including vinblastine and vincristine, were isolated from Catharanthus roseus while screening for anti-diabetic drugs. [23] This chance discovery led to increased research into the chemotherapeutic effects of vinblastine and vincristine. Conflict between historical indigenous use, and patent from 2001 on C. roseus-derived drugs by western pharmaceutical companies, without compensation, has led to accusations of biopiracy. [24]

Medicinal

Vinblastine and vincristine, chemotherapy medications used to treat several types of cancers, are found in the plant [25] [26] [27] [28] and are biosynthesised from the coupling of the alkaloids catharanthine and vindoline. [29] The newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent vinorelbine, used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer, [27] [30] can be prepared either from vindoline and catharanthine [27] [31] or from the vinca alkaloid leurosine, [32] in both cases via anhydrovinblastine. [31] The insulin-stimulating vincoline has been isolated from the plant. [33] [34]

A periwinkle shrub A Catharanthus Roseus bush in Hyderabad, Pakistan.jpg
A periwinkle shrub
Catharanthus roseus 82.jpg

Research

Despite the medical importance and wide use, the desired alkaloids (vinblastine and vincristine) are naturally produced at very low yields. Additionally, it is complex and costly to synthesize the desired products in a lab, resulting in difficulty satisfying the demand and a need for overproduction. [35] Treatment of the plant with phytohormones, such as salicylic acid [36] and methyl jasmonate, [37] [38] have been shown to trigger defense mechanisms and overproduce downstream alkaloids. Studies using this technique vary in growth conditions, choice of phytohormone, and location of treatment. Concurrently, there are various efforts to map the biosynthetic pathway producing the alkaloids to find a direct path to overproduction via genetic engineering. [39] [40]

C. roseus is used in plant pathology as an experimental host for phytoplasmas. [41] This is because it is easy to infect with a large majority of phytoplasmas, and also often has very distinctive symptoms such as phyllody and significantly reduced leaf size. [42]

In 1995 and 2006 Malagasy agronomists and American political ecologists studied the production of Catharanthus roseus around Fort Dauphin and Ambovombe and its export as a natural source of the alkaloids used to make vincristine, vinblastine and other vinca alkaloid cancer drugs. Their research focused on the wild collection of periwinkle roots and leaves from roadsides and fields and its industrial cultivation on large farms. [43] [44] [45]

Biology

Rosinidin is the pink anthocyanidin pigment found in the flowers of C. roseus. [46] Lochnericine is a major alkaloid in roots. [47]

Toxicity

C. roseus can be extremely toxic if consumed orally by humans, and is cited (under its synonym Vinca rosea) in the Louisiana State Act 159. All parts of the plant are poisonous. On consumption, symptoms consist of mild stomach cramps, cardiac complications, hypotension, systematic paralysis eventually leading to death. [48]

According to French botanist Pierre Boiteau, its poisonous properties are made known along generations of Malagasy people as a poison consumed in ordeal trials, even before the tangena fruit was used. This lent the flower one of its names vonenina, from Malagasy : vony enina meaning "flower of remorse". [49]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alkaloid</span> Class of naturally occurring chemical compounds

Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen or sulfur. More rarely still, they may contain elements such as phosphorus, chlorine, and bromine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apocynaceae</span> Dogbane and oleander family of flowering plants

Apocynaceae is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the dogbane family, because some taxa were used as dog poison. Members of the family are native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members. The former family Asclepiadaceae is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found here.

<i>Catharanthus</i> Genus of flowering plants

Catharanthus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae. Like the genus Vinca, they are known commonly as periwinkles. There are eight known species. Seven are endemic to Madagascar, though one, C. roseus, is widely naturalized around the world. The eighth species, C. pusillus, is native to India and Sri Lanka. The name Catharanthus comes from the Greek for "pure flower".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vincristine</span> Chemical compound; chemotherapy medication

Vincristine, also known as leurocristine and marketed under the brand name Oncovin among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, Hodgkin's disease, neuroblastoma, and small cell lung cancer among others. It is given intravenously.

<i>Vinca</i> Genus of flowering plants

Vinca is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, native to Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia. The English name periwinkle is shared with the related genus Catharanthus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vinorelbine</span> Pharmaceutical drug

Vinorelbine (NVB), sold under the brand name Navelbine among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes breast cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. It is given by injection into a vein or by mouth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vinblastine</span> Chemotherapy medication

Vinblastine (VBL), sold under the brand name Velban among others, is a chemotherapy medication, typically used with other medications, to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-small-cell lung cancer, bladder cancer, brain cancer, melanoma, and testicular cancer. It is given by injection into a vein.

<i>Vinca</i> alkaloid

Vinca alkaloids are a set of anti-mitotic and anti-microtubule alkaloid agents originally derived from the periwinkle plant Catharanthus roseus and other vinca plants. They block beta-tubulin polymerization in a dividing cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vindesine</span> Chemical compound

Vindesine, also termed Eldisine, is a semisynthetic vinca alkaloid derived from the flowering plant Catharanthus roseus. Like the natural and semisynthetic vinca alkaloids derived from this plant, vindesine is an inhibitor of mitosis that is used as a chemotherapy drug. By inhibiting mitosis, vinedsine blocks the proliferation of cells, particularly the rapidly proliferation cells of certain types of cancer. It is used, generally in combination with other chemotherapeutic drugs, in the treatment of various malignancies such as leukaemia, lymphoma, melanoma, breast cancer, and lung cancer.

<i>Vinca major</i> Species of vine

Vinca major, with the common names bigleaf periwinkle, large periwinkle, greater periwinkle and blue periwinkle, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, native to the western Mediterranean. Growing to 25 cm (10 in) tall and spreading indefinitely, it is an evergreen perennial, frequently used in cultivation as groundcover.

Ambovombe-Androy, or just Ambovombe, is a city in the far south of Madagascar, and the capital of the Androy region. Ambovombe has now acquired city status with an officially estimated population in 2018 of 114,230.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mitotic inhibitor</span> Cell division inhibitor

A mitotic inhibitor, microtubule inhibitor, or tubulin inhibitor, is a drug that inhibits mitosis, or cell division, and is used in treating cancer, gout, and nail fungus. These drugs disrupt microtubules, which are structures that pull the chromosomes apart when a cell divides. Mitotic inhibitors are used in cancer treatment, because cancer cells are able to grow through continuous division that eventually spread through the body (metastasize). Thus, cancer cells are more sensitive to inhibition of mitosis than normal cells. Mitotic inhibitors are also used in cytogenetics, where they stop cell division at a stage where chromosomes can be easily examined.

Strictosidine synthase (EC 4.3.3.2) is an enzyme in alkaloid biosynthesis that catalyses the condensation of tryptamine with secologanin to form strictosidine in a formal Pictet–Spengler reaction:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominican tea culture</span>

Dominican tea culture combines many customs adapted from various colonial and immigrant cultures that have mingled in Dominica. "Bush teas", made from local herbal plants and often taken for medicinal purposes, are a traditional part of Dominica's culture.

<i>Catharanthus trichophyllus</i> Species of flowering plant

Catharanthus trichophyllus is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is endemic to Madagascar, where it is most common in northern regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Akuammicine</span> Alkaloid

Akuammicine is a monoterpene indole alkaloid of the Vinca sub-group. It is found in the Apocynaceae family of plants including Picralima nitida, Vinca minor and the Aspidosperma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Catharanthine</span> Chemical compound

Catharanthine is a terpene indole alkaloid produced by the medicinal plant Catharanthus roseus and Tabernaemontana divaricata. Catharanthine is derived from strictosidine, but the exact mechanism by which this happens is currently unknown. Catharanthine is one of the two precursors that form vinblastine, the other being vindoline.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strictosidine</span> Chemical compound

Strictosidine is a natural chemical compound and is classified as a glucoalkaloid and a vinca alkaloid. It is formed by the Pictet–Spengler condensation reaction of tryptamine with secologanin, catalyzed by the enzyme strictosidine synthase. Thousands of strictosidine derivatives are sometimes referred to by the broad phrase of monoterpene indole alkaloids. Strictosidine is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of numerous pharmaceutically valuable metabolites including quinine, camptothecin, ajmalicine, serpentine, vinblastine, vincristine and mitragynine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">16-Hydroxytabersonine</span> Chemical compound

16-Hydroxytabersonine is a terpene indole alkaloid produced by the plant Catharanthus roseus. The metabolite is an intermediate in the formation of vindoline, a precursor needed for formation of the pharmaceutically valuable vinblastine and vincristine. 16-hydroxytabersonine is formed from the hydroxylation of tabersonine by tabersonine 16-hydroxylase (T16H). Tabersonine 16-O-methyltransferase (16OMT) methylates the hydroxylated 16 position to form 16-methoxytabersonine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bis(cyclopentadienyl)titanium(III) chloride</span> Chemical compound

Bis(cyclopentadienyl)titanium(III) chloride, also known as the Nugent–RajanBabu reagent, is the organotitanium compound which exists as a dimer with the formula [(C5H5)2TiCl]2. It is an air sensitive green solid. The complex finds specialized use in synthetic organic chemistry as a single electron reductant.

References

  1. ↑ "Catharanthus roseus". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 4 August 2019.
  2. ↑ "Catharanthus roseus". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 4 August 2019.
  3. ↑ Moudi, Maryam; Go, Rusea; Yien, Christina Yong Seok; Nazre, Mohd. (2013-11-04). "Vinca Alkaloids". International Journal of Preventive Medicine. 4 (11): 1231–1235. ISSN   2008-7802. PMC   3883245 . PMID   24404355.
  4. ↑ de La Beaujardière, Jean-Marie, ed. (2001). "Botanical scientific bames". Malagasy Dictionary and Malagasy Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2022-11-01. Retrieved 2022-11-01.
  5. ↑ Steenis ex Bakhuizen f., Blumea 6: 384. 1950.
  6. 1 2 G.Don, Gen. Hist. 4(1): 95. 1837.
  7. ↑ Markgr., Adansonia, ser. 2. 12: 222. 1972.
  8. ↑ Woodson, N. Amer. Fl. 29: 124. 1938.
  9. ↑ Bakh. f.Blumea 6 (2): 384. 1950.
  10. ↑ Markgr. Adansonia, ser. 2. 12: 222. 1972.
  11. ↑ Steenis Trop. Nat. 25: 18. 1936.
  12. 1 2 3 Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN   0-333-47494-5.
  13. 1 2 Flora of China: Catharanthus roseus
  14. ↑ College of Micronesia: Catharanthus roseus
  15. ↑ Jepson Flora: Catharanthus roseus
  16. ↑ Andriamanalintsoa, Jean Joseph (1995). Contribution a l'etude de la producition de la pervenche de Madagascar ou Catharanthus roseus, Cas d' Ambovombe, d'Amboasary-sud, de Beloha et Tsihombe (PhD Dissertation) (in French). Antananarivo, Madagascar: Universityersité d'Antananarivo, Ecole Superieur des Sciences Agronomiques.
  17. ↑ Neimark, Ben (2012). "Green grabbing at the 'pharm' gate: rosy periwinkle production in southern Madagascar". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 39 (2): 423-445. doi:10.1080/03066150.2012.666975. S2CID   153584071 . Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  18. ↑ "Catharanthus roseus". Orpheus Island Research Station – James Cook University. Retrieved 2 November 2015.[ permanent dead link ]
  19. ↑ "Factsheet – Catharanthus roseus". Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2015.
  20. ↑ "RHS Plantfinder - Catharanthus roseus" . Retrieved 12 January 2018.
  21. ↑ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 16. Retrieved 24 January 2018.
  22. ↑ Nejat, Naghmeh; Valdiani, Alireza; Cahill, David; Tan, Yee-How; Maziah, Mahmood; Abiri, Rambod (2015). "Ornamental Exterior versus Therapeutic Interior of Madagascar Periwinkle ( Catharanthus roseus ): The Two Faces of a Versatile Herb". The Scientific World Journal. 2015: 982412. doi: 10.1155/2015/982412 . ISSN   2356-6140. PMC   4312627 . PMID   25667940.
  23. ↑ Heijden, Robert; Jacobs, Denise; Snoeijer, Wim; Hallard, Didier; Verpoorte, Robert (2004-03-01). "The Catharanthus Alkaloids:Pharmacognosy and Biotechnology". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 11 (5): 607–628. doi:10.2174/0929867043455846. ISSN   0929-8673. PMID   15032608.
  24. ↑ Karasov, Corliss (2001). "Who Reaps the Benefits of Biodiversity?". Environmental Health Perspectives . 109 (12): A582–A587. doi:10.2307/3454734. JSTOR   3454734. PMC   1240518 . PMID   11748021.
  25. ↑ Gansäuer, Andreas; Justicia, José; Fan, Chun-An; Worgull, Dennis; Piestert, Frederik (2007). "Reductive C—C bond formation after epoxide opening via electron transfer". In Krische, Michael J. (ed.). Metal Catalyzed Reductive C—C Bond Formation: A Departure from Preformed Organometallic Reagents. Topics in Current Chemistry. Vol. 279. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 25–52. doi:10.1007/128_2007_130. ISBN   978-3-540-72879-5.
  26. ↑ Cooper, Raymond; Deakin, Jeffrey John (2016). "Africa's gift to the world". Botanical Miracles: Chemistry of Plants That Changed the World. CRC Press. pp. 46–51. ISBN   978-1-4987-0430-4.
  27. 1 2 3 Keglevich, Péter; Hazai, Laszlo; Kalaus, György; Szántay, Csaba (2012). "Modifications on the basic skeletons of vinblastine and vincristine". Molecules . 17 (5): 5893–5914. doi: 10.3390/molecules17055893 . PMC   6268133 . PMID   22609781.
  28. ↑ Raviña, Enrique (2011). "Vinca alkaloids". The evolution of drug discovery: From traditional medicines to modern drugs. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 157–159. ISBN   978-3-527-32669-3.
  29. ↑ Hirata, K.; Miyamoto, K.; Miura, Y. (1994). "Catharanthus roseus L. (Periwinkle): Production of Vindoline and Catharanthine in Multiple Shoot Cultures". In Bajaj, Y. P. S. (ed.). Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry 26. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Vol. VI. Springer-Verlag. pp.  46–55. ISBN   978-3-540-56391-4.
  30. ↑ Faller, Bryan A.; Pandi, Trailokya N. (2011). "Safety and efficacy of vinorelbine in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer". Clinical Medicine Insights: Oncology . 5: 131–144. doi:10.4137/CMO.S5074. PMC   3117629 . PMID   21695100.
  31. 1 2 Ngo, Quoc Anh; Roussi, Fanny; Cormier, Anthony; Thoret, Sylviane; Knossow, Marcel; Guénard, Daniel; Guéritte, Françoise (2009). "Synthesis and biological evaluation of Vinca alkaloids and phomopsin hybrids". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . 52 (1): 134–142. doi:10.1021/jm801064y. PMID   19072542.
  32. ↑ Hardouin, Christophe; Doris, Eric; Rousseau, Bernard; Mioskowski, Charles (2002). "Concise synthesis of anhydrovinblastine from leurosine". Organic Letters . 4 (7): 1151–1153. doi:10.1021/ol025560c. PMID   11922805.
  33. ↑ Aynilian, GH; Weiss, SG; Cordell, GA; Abraham, DJ; Crane, FA; Farnsworth, NR (1974). "Catharanthus alkaloids. XXIX. Isolation and structure elucidation of vincoline". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 63 (4): 536–8. doi:10.1002/jps.2600630409. PMID   4828700.
  34. ↑ Yao, XG; Chen, F; Li, P; Quan, L; Chen, J; Yu, L; Ding, H; Li, C; Chen, L; Gao, Z; Wan, P; Hu, L; Jiang, H; Shen, X (2013). "Natural product vindoline stimulates insulin secretion and efficiently ameliorates glucose homeostasis in diabetic murine models". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 150 (1): 285–97. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2013.08.043. PMID   24012527.
  35. ↑ Pan, Qifang; Wang, Chenyi; Xiong, Zhiwei; Wang, Hang; Fu, Xueqing; Shen, Qian; Peng, Bowen; Ma, Yanan; Sun, Xiaofen; Tang, Kexuan (2019-07-18). "CrERF5, an AP2/ERF Transcription Factor, Positively Regulates the Biosynthesis of Bisindole Alkaloids and Their Precursors in Catharanthus roseus". Frontiers in Plant Science. 10: 931. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00931 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   6657538 . PMID   31379908.
  36. ↑ ABABAF, M; OMIDI, H; BAKHSHANDEH, A M (2019). "Germination Indices and Antioxidant Activity Enzyme Responses of Madagascar Periwinkle (Catharanthus Roseus (L.) G. Don) Under Pretreatment by Salicylic Acid". Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. 17 (2): 3989–4005. doi: 10.15666/aeer/1702_39894005 . ISSN   1589-1623.
  37. ↑ Khataee, Elham; Karimi, Farah; Razavi, Khadijeh (2021). "Different carbon sources and their concentrations change alkaloid production and gene expression in Catharanthus roseus shoots in vitro". Functional Plant Biology. 48 (1): 40–53. doi:10.1071/FP19254. ISSN   1445-4408. PMID   32690131. S2CID   220670971.
  38. ↑ Fraser, Valerie N.; Philmus, Benjamin; Megraw, Molly (September 2020). "Metabolomics analysis reveals both plant variety and choice of hormone treatment modulate vinca alkaloid production in Catharanthus roseus". Plant Direct. 4 (9): e00267. doi: 10.1002/pld3.267 . ISSN   2475-4455. PMC   7520646 . PMID   33005857.
  39. ↑ Singh, Sanjay Kumar; Patra, Barunava; Paul, Priyanka; Liu, Yongliang; Pattanaik, Sitakanta; Yuan, Ling (April 2020). "Revisiting the ORCA gene cluster that regulates terpenoid indole alkaloid biosynthesis in Catharanthus roseus". Plant Science. 293: 110408. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2020.110408. ISSN   0168-9452. PMID   32081258. S2CID   211231123.
  40. ↑ Mortensen, Samuel; Weaver, Jessica D.; Sathitloetsakun, Suphinya; Cole, Lauren F.; Rizvi, Noreen F.; Cram, Erin J.; Lee-Parsons, Carolyn W. T. (December 2019). "The regulation of ZCT1, a transcriptional repressor of monoterpenoid indole alkaloid biosynthetic genes in Catharanthus roseus". Plant Direct. 3 (12): e00193. doi: 10.1002/pld3.193 . ISSN   2475-4455. PMC   6937483 . PMID   31909362.
  41. ↑ Marcone, C.; Ragozzino, A.; Seemuller, E. (1997). "Dodder transmission of alder yellows phytoplasma to the experimental host Catharanthus roseus (periwinkle)". Forest Pathology . 27 (6): 347–350. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0329.1997.tb01449.x.
  42. ↑ Chang, Chung-Jan (1998). "Pathogenicity of Aster Yellows Phytoplasma and Spiroplasma citri on Periwinkle". Phytopathology . 88 (12): 1347–1350. doi: 10.1094/PHYTO.1998.88.12.1347 . PMID   18944838.
  43. ↑ Andriamanalintsoa, Jean Joseph (1995). Contribution a l'etude de la producition de la pervenche de Madagascar ou Catharanthus roseus, Cas d' Ambovombe, d'Amboasary-sud, de Beloha et Tsihombe (PhD Dissertation) (in French). Antananarivo, Madagascar: Universityersité d'Antananarivo, Ecole Superieur des Sciences Agronomiques.
  44. ↑ Neimark, Benjamin (2009). "At the "Pharm" gate: The case study of the rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus)". Industrial Heartlands of Nature: The Political Economy of Biological Prospecting in Madagascar (PhD Dissertation). New Brunswick: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. p. 70-112. doi:10.7282/T3WD40Q7.
  45. ↑ Neimark, Ben (2012). "Green grabbing at the 'pharm' gate: rosy periwinkle production in southern Madagascar". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 39 (2): 423-445. doi:10.1080/03066150.2012.666975. S2CID   153584071 . Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  46. ↑ Toki, Kenjiro; Saito, Norio; Irie, Yuki; Tatsuzawa, Fumi; Shigihara, Atsushi; Honda, Toshio (2008). "7-O-Methylated anthocyanidin glycosides from Catharanthus roseus". Phytochemistry . 69 (5): 1215–1219. Bibcode:2008PChem..69.1215T. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.11.005. PMID   18164044.
  47. ↑ "American Society of Plant Biologists". August 2018.
  48. ↑ "Is Periwinkle Plant Poisonous or Toxic?". 9 June 2020.
  49. ↑ Boiteau, Pierre (1999). "vonenina". Dictionnaire des noms malgaches de végétaux (in French). Vol. IV. Editions Alzieu. Archived from the original on 2022-11-01. Retrieved 2022-11-01– via Malagasy Dictionary and Malagasy Encyclopedia.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.