Dacian warfare

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Tropaeum Traiani depicting a soldier armed with a falx AdamclisiMetope32.jpg
Tropaeum Traiani depicting a soldier armed with a falx

The history of Dacian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 2nd century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Dacia, populated by a collection of Thracian, Ionian, and Dorian tribes. [1] It concerns the armed conflicts of the Dacian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans. Apart from conflicts between Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Dacians too.

Contents

Mythological

Tribal wars

The Dacians fought amongst each other [2] but were later united under Burebista. However, after his death [3] in 44 BC, the empire again descended into conflict culminating in a full-scale civil war. This led to the division of Burebista's empire into five separate kingdoms, severely weakening the Dacian's defensive capabilities against enemies, particularly Rome. [4] The Dacian tribes were again consolidated under Decebalus, who achieved several military victories in a series of battles with the forces of Emperor Domitian.

Tropaeum Traiani depicting a soldier armed with a falx AdamclisiMetope32.jpg
Tropaeum Traiani depicting a soldier armed with a falx

The history of Dacian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 2nd century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Dacia, populated by a collection of Thracian, Ionian, and Dorian tribes. [1] It concerns the armed conflicts of the Dacian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans. Apart from conflicts between Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Dacians too.

Domitian's Dacian War

The two punitive expeditions mounted as a border defense against raids of Moesia from Dacia in 86-87 AD ordered by the Emperor Titus Flavius Domitianus (Domitian) in 87 AD, and 88 AD. The first expedition was an unmitigated disaster, and the second achieved a peace, seen as unfavorable and shameful by many in Rome.

Trajan's Dacian Wars

Trajan's Dacian Wars. The two campaigns of conquest ordered or led by the Emperor Trajan in 101-102 AD, and 105-106 AD from Moesia across the Danube north into Dacia. Trajan's forces were successful in both cases, reducing Dacia to client state status in the first, and taking the territory over in the second. These wars involved no fewer than 13 legions. [5] The defeat reduced the Dacian territory as a mere Roman province. Rome ruled it, including the entire Transylvanian basin for 150 years. A succession of migratory waves by Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars, and Slavs overran Dacia, cutting it off from the Roman and the Byzantine empires by the end of the sixth century. [1]

Dacian troop types and organization

The Dacians, like any other barbarian nation, never fielded a standing army, even though there was a warrior class of sorts, the comati , meaning "long-haired people". Instead, local chieftains, the pileati , meaning "cap-wearing people", raised a levy when required, a force only available after the harvesting season ended. The men themselves fought in everyday clothing defended merely by an oval shield, for body armor and helmets were only worn by the nobility. [6]

Infantry and cavalry

The Dacian tribes established a highly militarized society and, during the periods when the tribes were united under one king (82 -44 BC, 86-106 AD), posed a major threat to the Roman provinces of Lower Danube. Julius Caesar made preparations for war with King Burebista to prevent an invasion of Macedonia, however both rulers died in the same year. Dacia lost control over territories beyond the Danube and Tisza and collapsed into hostile fractions, now being able to master only 40,000 men from the previous 200,000. Dacia, however remained a formidable foe: in the winter of 10 BC, a raid across the Danube was repulsed by Marcus Vinicius. After some decades, the invasions restarted. A major one was just checked in 69 by Licinius Mucianus while on his way to battle Aulus Vitellius. In another one in 85 the Romans have almost lost Moesia, and its governor Oppius Sabinus was killed. The following year a Dacian force annihilated the army of Cornelius Fuscus under the new leader Decebalus after the victory of Tettius Julianus at Tapae. As the war dragged on, Domitian was distracted by the Suebians and Iazyges, and had to make a humiliating peace. [7] Later Trajan had attacked Decebalus two times, first making peace before reaching the capital, then taking it and conquering around a third of Dacia. According to Criton of Heraclea, the 500,000 POWs were taken. [8] The Free Dacians, allying with Scythian and Germanic tribes never stopped raiding the new Roman province.

Dacian scale armour Dacian Scale Armour.JPG
Dacian scale armour

After the sound of the carnyx war trumpet, the Dacians went to battle with the draco . The most important weapon of their arsenal was the falx.[ citation needed ] This dreaded weapon, similar to a large sickle, came in two variants: a shorter, one-handed falx called a sica, [9] and a longer two-handed version, which was a polearm. It consisted of a three-feet long wooden shaft with a long curved iron blade of nearly-equal length attached to the end. The blade was sharpened only on the inside, and was reputed to be devastatingly effective. However, it left its user vulnerable because, using a two-handed weapon, the warrior could not also make use of a shield. Alternatively, it might be used as a hook, pulling away shields and cutting at vulnerable limbs.

Using the falx, the Dacian warriors were able to counter the power of the compact, massed Roman formations. During the time of the Roman conquest of Dacia (101 - 102, 105 - 106), legionaries had reinforcing iron straps applied to their helmets. The Romans also introduced the use of leg and arm protectors (greaves and manica [ citation needed ]) as further protection against the falxes. This was one of the rare times in history where Roman armor was modified.

An atypical falx. The handle was usually as long as, if not longer than, the blade. Falx bgiu.png
An atypical falx. The handle was usually as long as, if not longer than, the blade.
Sica, a small version of the falx SicaAncient.jpg
Sica, a small version of the falx

The Dacians were adept[ citation needed ] at surprise attacks and skillful, tactical withdrawals using the fortification system. During the wars with the Romans fought by their last king Decebalus (87-106), the Dacians almost crushed the Roman garrisons south of the Danube in a surprise[ citation needed ] attack launched over the frozen river ( winter of 101-102 ). Only the intervention of Emperor Trajan with the main army saved the Romans from a major defeat. But, by 106, the Dacians were surrounded in their capital Sarmizegetusa. The city was taken after the Romans discovered and destroyed[ citation needed ] the capital's water supply line.

Dacians decorated their bodies with tattoos like the Illyrians [10] and the Thracians. [11] The Pannonians north of the Drava had accepted Roman rule out of fear of the Dacians. [12]

Dacia remained a Roman province until 271.

Marcus Annaeus Lucanus [13] 39 - 65 wrote of Dacian hordes;

Have poured her captains, and the troops who guard the northern frontier from the Dacian hordes

Dacians that could afford armor wore customised Phrygian type helmets with solid crests (intricately decorated), domed helmets and Sarmatian helmets. [14] They fought with spears, javelins, falces, and one-sided battle axes, and used "Draco" carnyxes as standards. Most used only shields as a form of defense. Cavalry would be armed with a spear, a long La Tène sword and an oval shield; few in number, they relied heavily on Sarmatian allies for their mounted arm.

Most[ citation needed ] of the infantry would wield a falx and perhaps a sica and would wear no armor at all, even shunning shields.

Mercenaries

Dacian mercenaries were uncommon in contrast to the Thracians and the Illyrians but they could be found in the service of the Greek Diadochi [15] and of the Romans. [16]

Nobility

A 2nd century chieftain would wear a bronze Phrygian type helmet, a corselet of iron scale armor, an oval wooden shield with motifs and wield a sword. [17]

The ancient historian Ptolemy mentions a naval battle between the Geto-Dacians and the Romans near the island of Eukon (most likely today's Popina island).

Fortifications

Remains of the Fortress of Blidaru. Cetatea Blidaru.JPG
Remains of the Fortress of Blidaru.

Dacians had built fortresses all around Dacia with most of them being on the Danube. [18] A scene from Trajan's column shows Romans attacking a Dacian fortification using the "testudo". [19]

The Dacians constructed stone strongholds, davas, in the Carpathian Mountains in order to protect their capital Sarmizegetusa. The fortifications were built on a system of circular belts. This allowed[ citation needed ] the defenders, after a stronghold was lost, to retreat to the next one using hidden escape gates. Advanced defensive systems adopted from the Greeks made their already powerful strongholds extremely difficult obstacles. [6]

External influences

Thracian

Scythian and Sarmatian

A Dacian Draco. Dacian Draco.svg
A Dacian Draco.

The Dacian Draco was the standard of the ancient Dacian military. It served as a standard for the Dacians of the La Tène period and its origin must clearly be sought in the art of Asia Minor sometime during the second millennium BC. [20]

Sarmatians were part [21] of the Dacian army as allies.The Roxolani became part of the Dacians while the Iazyges fought against them trying to claim their own land. [22]

The Celts played a very active role in Dacia as enemies that were easily defeated by Dacians. [23] The Scordisci were among the defeated Celts that the Dacians conquered. [24]

Greek/Hellenic

Cothelas had become a vassal to ancient Macedon.[ citation needed ] Some Kings of the Getae had been Hellenized [25] The Dacians traded with the Hellenistic world based upon their mineral reserves and gained better technological and cultural strategies than their Germanic and Celtic neighbours. Advanced defensive systems made their already powerful strongholds extremely difficult obstacles. [6]

Roman

Roman province of Dacia with Roman settlements and legion garrisons included Roman province of Dacia (106 - 271 AD).svg
Roman province of Dacia with Roman settlements and legion garrisons included
Dacian armaments 057 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssaule, Tafel LVII (Ausschnitt 02).jpg
Dacian armaments

After their defeat, the Dacians were ethnically cleansed. Young men were either killed or became slaves or legionaries. The remaining population was expelled and their lands were given to colonists. [8] Later, the Romans started minting a coin called Dacicus [26] was minted by Domitian.

Barbarians

Dacians were spoken of by Trajan as dignified barbarians [27] consequently still dangerous, but unable to win against the might of Rome. 1st century BC poet Horace writes of them in one of his works and mentions them along with the Scythians [28] as tyrants and fierce barbarians. Later historian Tacitus writes that they are a people that can never be trusted. [29]

The Ancient Greeks [30] expressed admiration and respect for Burebista.

List of Dacian battles

This is a list of battles or conflicts that Dacians had a leading or crucial role in, rarely as mercenaries. They were involved in massive battles against Roman legions.

See also

Related Research Articles

This article covers the history and bibliography of Romania and links to specialized articles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dacia</span> Ancient kingdom in Southeastern Europe (168 BC–106 AD)

Dacia was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus roughly corresponds to the present-day countries of Romania, as well as parts of Moldova, Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, Slovakia, and Ukraine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moesia</span> Historical region of the Balkans

Moesia was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River, which included most of the territory of modern eastern Serbia, Kosovo, north-eastern Albania, northern parts of North Macedonia, Northern Bulgaria, Romanian Dobruja and small parts of Southern Ukraine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dacians</span> Indo-European people

The Dacians were the ancient Indo-European inhabitants of the cultural region of Dacia, located in the area near the Carpathian Mountains and west of the Black Sea. They are often considered a subgroup of the Thracians. This area includes mainly the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Ukraine, Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary and Southern Poland. The Dacians and the related Getae spoke the Dacian language, which has a debated relationship with the neighbouring Thracian language and may be a subgroup of it. Dacians were somewhat culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4th century BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decebalus</span> King of Dacia (r. 87–106)

Decebalus, sometimes referred to as Diurpaneus, was the last Dacian king. He is famous for fighting three wars, with varying success, against the Roman Empire under two emperors. After raiding south across the Danube, he defeated a Roman invasion in the reign of Domitian, securing a period of independence during which Decebalus consolidated his rule.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Burebista</span> 1st-century BC Thracian king of the Getae and Dacians

Burebista was the king of the Getae and Dacian tribes from 82/61 BC to 45/44 BC. He was the first king who successfully unified the tribes of the Dacian kingdom, which comprised the area located between the Danube, Tisza, and Dniester rivers, and modern day Romania and Moldova. In the 7th and 6th centuries BC it became home to the Thracian peoples, including the Getae and the Dacians. From the 4th century to the middle of the 2nd century BC the Dacian peoples were influenced by La Tène Celts who brought new technologies with them into Dacia. Sometime in the 2nd century BC the Dacians expelled the Celts from their lands. Dacians often warred with neighbouring tribes, but the relative isolation of the Dacian peoples in the Carpathian Mountains allowed them to survive and even to thrive. By the 1st century BC the Dacians had become the dominant power.

<i>Falx</i> Ancient bladed weapon

The falx was a weapon with a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge used by the Thracians and Dacians. The name was later applied to a siege hook used by the Romans.

The Dacian Wars were two military campaigns fought between the Roman Empire and Dacia during Emperor Trajan's rule. The conflicts were triggered by the constant Dacian threat on the Danubian province of Moesia and also by the increasing need for resources of the economy of the Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domitian's Dacian War</span> Conflict between the Roman Empire and the Dacia (86-88 AD)

Domitian's Dacian War was a conflict between the Roman Empire and the Dacian Kingdom, which had invaded the province of Moesia. The war occurred during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian, in the years 86–88 AD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Military history of Romania</span> Romanian Military historical account

The military history of Romania deals with conflicts spreading over a period of about 2500 years across the territory of modern Romania, the Balkan Peninsula and Eastern Europe and the role of the Romanian military in conflicts and peacekeeping worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duras (Dacian king)</span> 1st century king of Dacia

Duras, also known as Duras-Diurpaneus, was king of the Dacians between the years AD 69 and 87, during the time that Domitian ruled the Roman Empire. He was one of a series of rulers following the Great King Burebista. Duras' immediate successor was Decebalus.

<i>Dava</i> (Dacian) Dacian fortified settlement

Dava was a Geto-Dacian name for a city, town or fortress. Generally, the name indicated a tribal center or an important settlement, usually fortified. Some of the Dacian settlements and the fortresses employed the Murus Dacicus traditional construction technique.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Celts in Transylvania</span> Geographical aspect of Celts

The appearance of Celts in Transylvania can be traced to the later La Tène period . Excavation of the great La Tène necropolis at Apahida, Cluj County, by S. Kovacs at the turn of the 20th century revealed the first evidence of Celtic culture in Romania. The 3rd–2nd century BC site is remarkable for its cremation burials and chiefly wheel-made funeral vessels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman Dacia</span> Roman province (106–271/275)

Roman Dacia was a province of the Roman Empire from 106 to 271–275 AD. Its territory consisted of what are now the regions of Oltenia, Transylvania and Banat. During Roman rule, it was organized as an imperial province on the borders of the empire. It is estimated that the population of Roman Dacia ranged from 650,000 to 1,200,000. It was conquered by Trajan (98–117) after two campaigns that devastated the Dacian Kingdom of Decebalus. However, the Romans did not occupy its entirety; Crișana, Maramureș, and most of Moldavia remained under the Free Dacians.

This section of the timeline of Romanian history concerns events from Late Neolithic until Late Antiquity, which took place in or are directly related with the territory of modern Romania.

The Antiquity in Romania spans the period between the foundation of Greek colonies in present-day Dobruja and the withdrawal of the Romans from "Dacia Trajana" province. The earliest records of the history of the regions which now form Romania were made after the establishment of three Greek towns—Histria, Tomis, and Callatis—on the Black Sea coast in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. They developed into important centers of commerce and had a close relationship with the natives. The latter were first described by Herodotus, who made mention of the Getae of the Lower Danube region, the Agathyrsi of Transylvania and the Sygannae of Crişana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Histria</span> Battle between the Scythian Bastarnae and Romans led by Gaius Antonius Hybrida

The Battle of Histria, c. 62–61 B.C., was fought between the Bastarnae peoples of Scythia Minor and the Roman Consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida. The Bastarnae emerged victorious from the battle after successfully launching a surprise attack on the Roman troops; Hybrida escaped alongside his cavalry forces leaving behind the infantry to be massacred by the Bastarnian-Scythian attackers.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Bugajski, Janus (2002). Political Parties of Eastern Europe. New York: M.E. Sharpe. p. 829. ISBN   1563246767.
  2. ↑ Ramsey, Syed (2016). Tools of War: History of Weapons in Ancient Times. New Delhi: Alpha Editions. ISBN   9789386019806.
  3. ↑ The Legionary by Peter Connolly, 1998, page 14: "... dynamic king Burebista, a century and a half earlier, the Dacians had become the most powerful nation in central Europe, but since his death the country had been split by civil war."
  4. ↑ Grumeza, Ion (2009). Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe. Lanham: Hamilton Books. p. 146. ISBN   9780761844655.
  5. ↑ A Companion to the Roman Army (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World) by Paul Erdkamp, 2007, page 218
  6. 1 2 3 Bennett, Julian (2005). Trajan: Optimus Princeps. Taylor & Francis e-Library. p. 87. ISBN   0-415-165245.
  7. ↑ Bennett, Julian (2005). Trajan: Optimus Princeps. Taylor & Francis e-Library. p. 88. ISBN   0-415-165245.
  8. 1 2 Bennett, Julian (2005). Trajan: Optimus Princeps. Taylor & Francis e-Library. p. 104. ISBN   0-415-165245.
  9. ↑ Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129) by Peter Wilcox and Gerry Embleton, 1982, page 35
  10. ↑ The Illyrians by John Wilkes, 1996, page 198: "...their armor is Celtic but they are tattooed like the rest of the Illyrians and Thracians..."
  11. ↑ The World of Tattoo: An Illustrated History by Maarten Hesselt van Dinter, 2007, page 25: "... in ancient times. The Danube area Dacians, Thracians and Illyrians all decorated themselves with status-enhancing tattoos, ..."
  12. ↑ The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, 2003, page 1106, "Pannonia north of the Drava appears to have accepted Roman rule without a struggle probably owing to fear of the Dacians to the east.
  13. ↑ Luc. 8.331
  14. ↑ Rome's enemies: Germanics and Dacians by Peter Wilcox, Gerry Embleton, ISBN   0850454735, 1982
  15. ↑ The Coming of Rome in the Dacian World, ISBN   387940707X, 2000, page 83
  16. ↑ The Coming of Rome in the Dacian World, ISBN   387940707X, 2000, page 115
  17. ↑ Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129) by Peter Wilcox and Gerry Embleton, 1982
  18. ↑ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 13, "The shores of the Danube were well monitored from the Dacian fortresses Acidava, Buricodava, Dausadava (the shrine of the wolves), Diacum, Drobeta (Turnu Severin), Nentivava (Oltenita), Suvidava (Corabia), Tsirista, Tierna/Dierna (Orsova) and what is today Zimnicea. Downstream were also other fortresses: Axiopolis (Cernadova), Barbosi, Buteridava, Capidava (Topalu), Carsium (Harsova), Durostorum (Silistra), Sacidava/Sagadava (Dunareni) along with still others..."
  19. ↑ The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Volume 2, Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 2007, page 149: "... 4.5 Scene from Trajan's column depicting Roman troops attacking a Dacian fortification, using the famous testudo (tortoise) formation to shield themselves from ..."
  20. ↑ Parvan Vasile (1928) in 'Dacia', Bucuresti, page 125
  21. ↑ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 170
  22. ↑ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 134
  23. ↑ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 88
  24. ↑ Strab. 7.5, "...they often used the Scordisci as allies..."
  25. ↑ The Thracians, 700 BC - AD 46 by Christopher Webber, ISBN   1-84176-329-2, ISBN   978-1-84176-329-3, 2001, page 14, "It shows a Hellenised king of the Getae..."
  26. ↑ Dacicus, "Dācicus, a gold coin of Domitian, conqueror of the Dacians..."
  27. ↑ The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe by Peter S. Wells, 2001, page 105, "... so too the Emperor Trajan represented the Dacians as a strong threat to Roman authority on the lower Danube. These barbarian enemies are represented in heroic fashion, as dignified warriors ..."
  28. ↑ Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Odes, John Conington, Ed.Hor. Carm. 1.35, "The fierce Dacians, and Scythian hordes, people and towns, and Rome, their head, and mothers of barbarian lords, and tyrants in their purple dread,..."
  29. ↑ Tac. Hist. 3.46, "The Dacians also were in motion, a people which never can be trusted..."
  30. ↑ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 54, "The Greeks were so impressed with his achievements that they named him 'the first and greatest king of the kings of Thracia'...."
  31. ↑ Celtic Warrior: 300 BC-AD 100 by Stephen Allen and Wayne Reynolds, 2001, Front Matter,"... 60: Celtic Boii in Bohemia defeated by Dacian tribes from the lower Danube. 58-51: Caesar's campaigns in Gaul ..."
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