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Social norms are shared standards of acceptable behavior by groups. Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society,as well as be codified into rules and laws. Social normative influences or social norms,are deemed to be powerful drivers of human behavioural changes and well organized and incorporated by major theories which explain human behaviour. Institutions are composed of multiple norms. Norms are shared social beliefs about behavior;thus,they are distinct from "ideas","attitudes",and "values",which can be held privately,and which do not necessarily concern behavior. Norms are contingent on context,social group,and historical circumstances.
In social psychology,fundamental attribution error,also known as correspondence bias or attribution effect,is a cognitive attribution bias where observers underemphasize situational and environmental factors for the behavior of an actor while overemphasizing dispositional or personality factors. In other words,observers tend to overattribute the behaviors of others to their personality and underattribute them to the situation or context. Although personality traits and predispositions are considered to be observable facts in psychology,the fundamental attribution error is an error because it misinterprets their effects.
The bystander effect,or bystander apathy,is a social psychological theory that states that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim in presence of other people. First proposed in 1964 after the murder of Kitty Genovese,much research,mostly in psychology research laboratories,has focused on increasingly varied factors,such as the number of bystanders,ambiguity,group cohesiveness,and diffusion of responsibility that reinforces mutual denial. If a single individual is asked to complete the task alone,the sense of responsibility will be strong,and there will be a positive response;however,if a group is required to complete the task together,each individual in the group will have a weak sense of responsibility,and will often shrink back in the face of difficulties or responsibilities. The theory was prompted by the murder of Kitty Genovese about which it was wrongly reported that 38 bystanders watched passively.
Robert J. Sternberg is an American psychologist and psychometrician. He is Professor of Human Development at Cornell University.
In social psychology,pluralistic ignorance is a phenomenon which occurs when people mistakenly believe that everyone else holds a different opinion than their own. Most people in a group may go along with a view they do not agree with,because they incorrectly think that most other people in the group agree with it. It refers to a situation in which the minority position on a given topic is wrongly perceived to be the majority position or where the majority position is wrongly perceived to be the minority position. Pluralistic ignorance can arise due to a number of different factors. An individual may misjudge overall perceptions of a topic due to fear,embarrassment,social desirability,or social inhibition. Any of these can lead to the individual incorrectly perceiving the proportion of the general public who share similar beliefs to oneself. As such,pluralistic ignorance can only describe the coincidence of a belief with inaccurate perceptions,but not the process to get to those inaccurate perceptions. Thus,individuals may develop collective illusions when they feel they will receive backlash on their belief as they think it differs from society's belief.
In sociology and social psychology,an in-group is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast,an out-group is a social group with which an individual does not identify. People may for example identify with their peer group,family,community,sports team,political party,gender,sexual orientation,religion,or nation. It has been found that the psychological membership of social groups and categories is associated with a wide variety of phenomena.
The social norms approach,or social norms marketing,is an environmental strategy gaining ground in health campaigns. While conducting research in the mid-1980s,two researchers,H.W. Perkins and A.D. Berkowitz,reported that students at a small U.S. college held exaggerated beliefs about the normal frequency and consumption habits of other students with regard to alcohol. These inflated perceptions have been found in many educational institutions,with varying populations and locations. Despite the fact that college drinking is at elevated levels,the perceived amount almost always exceeds actual behavior. The social norms approach has shown signs of countering misperceptions,however research on changes in behavior resulting from changed perceptions varies between mixed to conclusively nonexistent.
Empathy-altruism is a form of altruism based on moral emotions or feelings for others.
Susan Tufts Fiske is an American psychologist who serves as the Eugene Higgins Professor of Psychology and Public Affairs in the Department of Psychology at Princeton University. She is a social psychologist known for her work on social cognition,stereotypes,and prejudice. Fiske leads the Intergroup Relations,Social Cognition,and Social Neuroscience Lab at Princeton University. Her theoretical contributions include the development of the stereotype content model,ambivalent sexism theory,power as control theory,and the continuum model of impression formation.
Phoebe C. Ellsworth is an American social psychologist and professor at the University of Michigan,holding dual appointments at the Psychology Department and in the Law School.
Prosocial behavior,or intent to benefit others,is a social behavior that "benefit[s] other people or society as a whole","such as helping,sharing,donating,co-operating,and volunteering". Obeying the rules and conforming to socially accepted behaviors are also regarded as prosocial behaviors. These actions may be motivated by empathy and by concern about the welfare and rights of others,as well as for egoistic or practical concerns,such as one's social status or reputation,hope for direct or indirect reciprocity,or adherence to one's perceived system of fairness. It may also be motivated by altruism,though the existence of pure altruism is somewhat disputed,and some have argued that this falls into philosophical rather than psychological realm of debate. Evidence suggests that pro sociality is central to the well-being of social groups across a range of scales,including schools. Prosocial behavior in the classroom can have a significant impact on a student's motivation for learning and contributions to the classroom and larger community. In the workplace,prosocial behaviour can have a significant impact on team psychological safety,as well as positive indirect effects on employee's helping behaviors and task performance. Empathy is a strong motive in eliciting prosocial behavior,and has deep evolutionary roots.
The gateway belief model (GBM) is a dual process theory in psychology and the communication sciences. The model suggests that public perception of the degree of normative (expert) agreement –or (scientific) consensus –on societal issues,such as climate change,vaccines,evolution,gun control,and GMO's functions as a so-called "gateway" cognition,influencing an individual's personal opinions,judgments,attitudes,and affective dispositions toward various social and scientific issues.
M. Lynne Cooper is the Curators' Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of Missouri. She is known for her research on risk-taking and psychological adjustment of adolescents,young adults,and couples. Many of her studies and published works are related to alcohol,substance use,and sexual activity in adolescents and young adults at the transition to adulthood. Other influential research has examined health outcomes of parents who experience stress due to conflicts between work and family responsibilities.
Intergroup relations refers to interactions between individuals in different social groups,and to interactions taking place between the groups themselves collectively. It has long been a subject of research in social psychology,political psychology,and organizational behavior.
Monica Rose Biernat is a social psychologist known for her research on social judgment,stereotyping,prejudice,and discrimination. She is a University Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of Kansas.
Serena Chen is an American social psychologist known for her work on the self and interpersonal relationships. She is Professor of Psychology at the University of California,Berkeley and currently serves as Chair of the Psychology Department. Her research utilizes a social-cognition framework and has been featured in The New York Times,The Wall Street Journal, and other news outlets.
Stacey Sinclair is an American psychologist and professor of psychology and public affairs,and associate professor of African American studies at Princeton University. Her research focuses on how interpersonal interactions translate culturally held prejudices into individual thoughts and actions.
Camille B. Wortman is a clinical health psychologist and expert on grief and coping in response to traumatic events and loss. She is an Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Stony Brook University.
Hillary Anger Elfenbein is the John and Ellen Wallace Distinguished Professor of Organizational Behavior at Washington University in St. Louis,known for her research on emotion in the workplace and cross-cultural differences in emotion.
References
- ↑ "Next Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge appointed". University of Cambridge. September 26, 2022. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
- ↑ Benedict, Catherine (February 8, 2017). "Q & A with Deborah Prentice, Incoming U. Provost". The Princetonian. Retrieved August 20, 2018.
- 1 2 3 4 "Deborah A. Prentice | Provost". provost.princeton.edu. Retrieved August 20, 2018.
- ↑ "Department of Psychology". psych.princeton.edu. Retrieved June 18, 2020.
- ↑ "Department of Psychology". psych.princeton.edu. Princeton University. Retrieved April 4, 2017.
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