Digital media in education

Last updated
Students in a media lab class. Media Studio class - small groups (10859130216).jpg
Students in a media lab class.

Digital Media in education is measured by a person's ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and produce media content and communication in a variety of forms. [1] These media may involve incorporating multiple digital softwares, devices, and platforms as a tool for learning. The use of digital media in education is growing rapidly in today's age, competing with books for the leading form of communication. This form of education is slowly combating the traditional forms of education that have been around for a long time. With the introduction of virtual education, there has been a need for more incorporation of new digital platforms in online classrooms. [2]

Contents

History

20th century

The technological advances and invention of the Internet in the late 20th century created the prospect of incorporating technology into learning. The early 1900s saw the use of the overhead projector as an educational tool, as well as on-air classes accessible through radio. [3] The first use of computers in classrooms occurred in 1950; it was a flight simulation program used to train pilots at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [4] However, the use of computers remained extremely limited and largely inaccessible. In 1964, researchers John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz designed a new computer language, called BASIC, that was simpler to learn than previous ones and popularized time-sharing, which allowed for multiple students to use a computer at one time. [4] By the 1980s, many schools began to take interest in the computer field, as companies began to release mass-market computers to the general public. [3] The emergence of networking allowed for computers to connect to a single communication system, which was both more efficient and cheaper than the previous stand-alone machines, leading to widespread adoption in school districts. [4]

By 1999, 99% of public school teachers in the United States reported that there was access to at least one computer in their school, with a further 84% of teachers having access to a computer in their classroom. [5] The invention of the World Wide Web around 1992 allowed for easier navigation of the Internet, and interest rapidly grew in educational fields. Computers began to be integrated into school curriculums; at first, they were used for word processing, creating spreadsheets, and data organization. By the latter half of the 1990s, the Internet became a tool for research, being used as a giant library resource. [4]

The invention of the World Wide Web also enabled the development of learning management systems, which allowed teachers to create online teaching environments that would store and organize content, as well as provide an online space for student activity, discussions, and assignments. [6] The rise of digital compression and high-speed Internet access allowed for video creation and distribution to become much cheaper, which led to the development of systems made for recording lectures. These lectures were often distributed through learning management systems, and led to the rise of fully online courses. [6]

21st century

2000 - 2010

By 2002, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology had begun making their recorded lectures available to the public. [6] The creation of YouTube, in 2005, further allowed for distribution of educational content, and many teachers chose to upload lectures or short videos to use as teaching aids in the classroom; notably, Khan Academy began uploading videos to YouTube in 2006, which further propelled the platform as an educational tool. [6] In 2007, Apple released iTunesU, another platform for collecting and sharing educational materials and videos. Learning management systems also became increasingly common, with two of the most popular-- Blackboard and Canvas-- coming into popularity after Canvas's release in 2008. 2008 also saw the first Massive Open Online Course, which was open to anyone and contained webinar presentations and posts made by experts. [6]

Projectors began to be phased out in favor of interactive whiteboards, which allowed teachers to easily integrate digital tools into their classrooms. [7] By 2009, 97% of classrooms in the United States had one or more computers, with 93% of them having Internet access. [3]

How Digital Media Is Used In Education

Students taking an assessment on iPads IPad Writers.jpg
Students taking an assessment on iPads

Digital media takes several different forms, such as email, video, websites, photos, and slideshows. The platforms are most beneficial with the use of advanced technological devices, such as iPads and laptops that have also been implemented in many classrooms. In a study done by Alison Cook-Sather, students tend to be more comfortable with communicating by e-mail. Emails allow direct communication with a student and instructor outside the classroom. Students can have dialogue at any time with their professors on problems or questions they are having. This allows students and instructors to advance communication techniques even outside of the classroom.

Through visual presentations students and instructors, can put forth their information with video and photo for context or engagement. Showcasing their topic through video and photo has become a major tool in the classroom for more visual learners. For example, in an article by Jon M. Wargo and Kara Clayton, U.S. secondary students amplified by a global political climate of fear, oppression, and increased nationalism, used multimodal composition, and video production in particular, as a means to participate in politics and voice their opinion. [8]

Through video production students were able to create a message and display it to a larger audience. The study showed that presenting information in the form of a video production increased student interactions with the assignment. Students felt more in control of their work, and production process allowed for them to voice their own opinions. Through the internet and websites like Google Classroom, Canvas, Blackboard, Slack, Discord, students, and professors can obtain and share information and assignments in one place. this use of digital media in education allows students to access useful information, communicate, and find opportunities, all inside their classes. As time has passed, different forms of digital media, such as laptops, video, and online research, have been incorporated into daily educational technology.

Benefits and Implication of Digital Media in Education

The main benefit of digital media in education is that it can increase student engagement. In addition, it helps students work through difficult concepts with multiple resources. Digital instruction also helps show difficult topics that are often hard to understand. When students use digital technology in a course, all the students in the classroom have the opportunity to hone those digital skills. The main implications of digital media in education is that, it gives teachers and instructors the opportunity to engage in dialogue based on mutual respect and reciprocity. Secondly, at the foundation of all teaching and learning, there is a link between the virtual and the actual based on the fundamental human relationship. [9]

A student coding for a web design class. Website Coding.jpg
A student coding for a web design class.

Opportunity Through Digital Media

New programs and classes are being added to curriculums every year. For instance, the University of Connecticut launched a digital media and graphic design major in 2015. This includes various classes such as web design, digital culture, animation, and more.

The process of education through the use of digital media can be split up into four types of learning activities which are passive, active, constructive, and interactive. [10] It is shown that students will gain more knowledge if they use more interactive types of learning activities rather than more passive ones. [10] Digital media in the classroom can bring new styles of learning in which would be more engaging and interactive. [11] Digital media allows people to showcase their work to social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Student’s work can also reach a larger crowd and receive comments and opinions via Reddit, YouTube, Vimeo. Pages like these allow public display of anyone’s ideas and work. Students looking for work or internships to strengthen their resumé also will find opportunity online through sites such as LinkedIn. The knowledge that students in education have related to media technologies varies in which would require some to have assistance while using them. [11]

Digital Media Literacy

Young students engaging with an iPad in a classroom environment. Young students engaging with an iPad in a classroom environment.jpg
Young students engaging with an iPad in a classroom environment.

Even though there is no exact definition of media literacy, it can be closely defined as the ability to decode information from digital media, take meaning from it, and adequately communicate the idea to others. [12] Media literacy refers to an act of 'knowing' within a specific critical stance that rejects the idea of an isolated neutral or objective reality while collaboratively constructing realities under sociohistorical influences. [13]

Media education is measured by a person's ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and produce media content and communication in a variety of forms. [14] Media literacy is a practice that allows people to access, critically evaluate, and create media. Information presented in the form of digital media is absorbed and expressed differently than when in the form of traditional media. [15] Evidently, literacy has always been a form of social power. Even though not everyone has the accessibility and opportunity to engage in such practices, the world of today is saturated with digital media. It is important to implement these technological changes into the education system to prepare individuals to be engaged in political, social and economic aspects of society. [16] Due to this, it is crucial for education systems to examine distinct forms of teaching and provide the appropriate resources and knowledge for the contemporary world. [15]

One of the reasons why digital media literacy is taught is because our society is becoming increasingly saturated with media content and messaging. [17] Media contains messaging that can influence perceptions, beliefs and attitudes, and digital media literacy education teaches students how to discern messaging techniques. [17]

In education, media literacy encourages students to ask questions about what they watch, hear, and read. These questions might address source bias, reliability, and authority. [18] Engagement with media platforms such as blogs, websites, and podcasts, are key to creating a cooperative education environment. "Cooperative education takes seriously the social and reciprocal nature of teaching and learning. It empowers teachers to relinquish authoritarian control, and encourages them to weave their expertise into the community of learning that emerges dynamically in the courses they teach." [19]

Media literacy also involves the ability of students to understand strategy to market media, such as understanding trends, keywords, timing, and other assets that allow for successful marketing.

Covid-19's Impact on Education

School across the country closed down because of the COVID-19 pandemic which affected the educational process in many ways. [20] Due to the rapid spread of Covid-19, there was a need for a larger more sustainable virtual education system. Since the students are at home, they have to attend their classes through a virtual process on their electronic devices. [20] These electronic devices include laptops, phones, and tablets. Implementing digital media platforms and technological devices assisted with an at-home virtual learning environment. These digital media platforms that are implemented include Google Classroom, Seesaw, Zoom cloud meetings, and Microsoft Teams. [21] This pandemic created a learning style that is becoming more normal, reliable, and flexible.

Even though the students that are using these virtual learning platforms are not physically in the classroom, they are able to experience similar education. [21] One issue that many schools had relating to transferring over to online education is the process of assessments and exams. [22] The process of preparing for exams and institutional assessments were affected because of the change of learning environment and time provided to gain the correct skills and knowledge. [22] Eddie M. Mulenga and José M. Marbán study students in Zambia during the pandemic to find how they adapted in the subject of Mathematics. Zambia was no different from a lot of the countries response pulling in-person class and going fully virtual. Their students were not prepared to navigate the unfamiliar platforms and saw engagement in the content fall off. A similar conclusion was found regarding the transition to virtual learning for students in Romania. The adaptation to the new platforms and environments were the biggest obstacles. [23]

Academic Surveillance

Surveillance plays a large role in all aspect of people's lives. With academics transitioning from a traditional class to a virtual environment there are many ways for surveillance to creep in, in these new academic environments. The academic world has made a vast evolution to where many online resources have become so useful that is difficult to see a future without them. The use of online databases, search engines, and even e-mail have contributed to this kind of advancement within the academic world. [24] Due to the increase of digital media within classrooms, the use of many software programs such as Proctorio, Zoom, WebX, exam proctoring programs are direct sources of academic surveillance. The use of this software aims to increase academic integrity and create a functional virtual academic environment. Although this software functions efficiently for a virtual classroom environment, there is concern as to what kind of data is being processed and shared from its users. Another aspect of academic surveillance that calls for recognition is how it has effected academic freedom. Many scholars believe the overuse of digital media platforms in educational environments can hinder intellectual discussion and debates for students as well as faculty members. [24] With these kinds of threats to the virtual education system, there are a lot of impositions on how this could affect the virtual education system in the future.

Related Research Articles

Educational software is a term used for any computer software which is made for an educational purpose. It encompasses different ranges from language learning software to classroom management software to reference software. The purpose of all this software is to make some part of education more effective and efficient.

Educational games are games explicitly designed with educational purposes, or which have incidental or secondary educational value. All types of games may be used in an educational environment, however educational games are games that are designed to help people learn about certain subjects, expand concepts, reinforce development, understand a historical event or culture, or assist them in learning a skill as they play. Game types include board, card, and video games.

Blended learning or hybrid learning, also known as technology-mediated instruction, web-enhanced instruction, or mixed-mode instruction, is an approach to education that combines online educational materials and opportunities for interaction online with physical place-based classroom methods.

A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, automation, and delivery of educational courses, training programs, materials or learning and development programs. The learning management system concept emerged directly from e-Learning. Learning management systems make up the largest segment of the learning system market. The first introduction of the LMS was in the late 1990s. Learning management systems have faced a massive growth in usage due to the emphasis on remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Educational technology is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning. When referred to with its abbreviation, "EdTech," it often refers to the industry of companies that create educational technology. In EdTech Inc.: Selling, Automating and Globalizing Higher Education in the Digital Age, Tanner Mirrlees and Shahid Alvi (2019) argue "EdTech is no exception to industry ownership and market rules" and "define the EdTech industries as all the privately owned companies currently involved in the financing, production and distribution of commercial hardware, software, cultural goods, services and platforms for the educational market with the goal of turning a profit. Many of these companies are US-based and rapidly expanding into educational markets across North America, and increasingly growing all over the world."

Editing technology is the use of technology tools in general content areas in education in order to allow students to apply computer and technology skills to learning and problem-solving. Generally speaking, the curriculum drives the use of technology and not vice versa. Technology integration is defined as the use of technology to enhance and support the educational environment. Technology integration in the classroom can also support classroom instruction by creating opportunities for students to complete assignments on the computer rather than with normal pencil and paper. In a larger sense, technology integration can also refer to the use of an integration platform and application programming interface (API) in the management of a school, to integrate disparate SaaS applications, databases, and programs used by an educational institution so that their data can be shared in real-time across all systems on campus, thus supporting students' education by improving data quality and access for faculty and staff.

"Curriculum integration with the use of technology involves the infusion of technology as a tool to enhance the learning in a content area or multidisciplinary setting... Effective technology integration is achieved when students can select technology tools to help them obtain information on time, analyze and synthesize it, and present it professionally to an authentic audience. Technology should become an integral part of how the classroom functions—as accessible as all other classroom tools. The focus in each lesson or unit is the curriculum outcome, not the technology."

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is a pedagogical approach wherein learning takes place via social interaction using a computer or through the Internet. This kind of learning is characterized by the sharing and construction of knowledge among participants using technology as their primary means of communication or as a common resource. CSCL can be implemented in online and classroom learning environments and can take place synchronously or asynchronously.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Digital literacy</span> Ones fluency in subjects involving digital matters

Digital literacy is an individual's ability to find, evaluate, and communicate information using typing or digital media platforms. It is a combination of both technical and cognitive abilities in using information and communication technologies to create, evaluate, and share information.

An edublog is a blog created for educational purposes. Edublogs archive and support student and teacher learning by facilitating reflection, questioning by self and others, collaboration and by providing contexts for engaging in higher-order thinking. Edublogs proliferated when blogging architecture became more simplified and teachers perceived the instructional potential of blogs as an online resource. The use of blogs has become popular in education institutions including public schools and colleges. Blogs can be useful tools for sharing information and tips among co-workers, providing information for students, or keeping in contact with parents. Common examples include blogs written by or for teachers, blogs maintained for the purpose of classroom instruction, or blogs written about educational policy. Educators who blog are sometimes called edubloggers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Educational video game</span> Video game genre

An educational video game is a video game that provides learning or training value to the player. Edutainment describes an intentional merger of video games and educational software into a single product. In the narrower sense used here, the term describes educational software which is primarily about entertainment, but tends to educate as well and sells itself partly under the educational umbrella. Normally software of this kind is not structured towards school curricula and does not involve educational advisors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian Computers in Education Conference</span>

This National Conference is the biennial conference of the Australian Council for Computers in Education (ACCE). The conference opens to anyone who in interested in sharing their digital teaching experiences. The first conference took place in Melbourne, 1983. Between 1983 and 1996, the conference was held annually across Australia. After 1996, the conference became biennial. From 1994, a series of frameworks were launched in Australia to integrate Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into education. Western Australia's 2001 Competency framework for Teachers identified teachers as an important component in developing computer education. In 2010, Education Minister Julia Gillard, proposed an education agenda to provide Australia a better education system. Besides ACCE, there are many organizations and conferences supporting the development of computer education in Australia. Technology in education consists of two major approaches: Learning with technology and learning from technology. Technology in education learning and traditional classroom learning have different focuses and defining features. There are also four types of computer education: Bring your own device(BYOD), blended learning, online learning, and flipped learning.

Social learning tools are tools used for pedagogical and andragogical purposes that utilize social software and/or social media in order to facilitate learning through interactions between individuals and systems. The idea of setting up "social learning tools" is to make education more convenient and widespread. It also allows an interaction between users and/or the software which can bring a different aspect to learning. People can acquire knowledge by distance learning tools, for instance, Facebook, Twitter, Khan Academy and so on. Social learning tools may mediate in formal or informal learning environments to help create connections between learners, instructors and information. These connections form dynamic knowledge networks. Social learning tools are used in schools for teaching/learning and in businesses for training. Within a school environment, the use of social learning tools can affect not only the user (student) but his/her caretaker as well as his/her instructor. It brings a different approach to the traditional way of learning which affects the student and his/her support circle. Companies also use social learning tools. They used them to improve knowledge transfer within departments and across teams. Businesses use a variety of these tools to create a social learning environment. They are also used in company settings to help improve team work, problem solving, and performance in stressful situations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Computers in the classroom</span> The use of computers in school

Computers in the classroom include any digital technology used to enhance, supplement, or replace a traditional educational curriculum with computer science education. As computers have become more accessible, inexpensive, and powerful, the demand for this technology has increased, leading to more frequent use of computer resources within classes, and a decrease in the student-to-computer ratio within schools.

Online communication between home and school is the use of digital telecommunication to convey information and ideas between teachers, students, parents, and school administrators. As the use of e-mail and the internet becomes even more widespread, these tools become more valuable and useful in education for the purposes of increasing learning for students, and facilitating conversations between students, parents, and schools.

A virtual learning environment (VLE) in educational technology is a web-based platform for the digital aspects of courses of study, usually within educational institutions. They present resources, activities, and interactions within a course structure and provide for the different stages of assessment. VLEs also usually report on participation and have some level of integration with other institutional systems. In North America, VLEs are often referred to as Learning Management Systems (LMS).

Social media language learning is a method of language acquisition that uses socially constructed Web 2.0 platforms such as wikis, blogs, and social networks to facilitate learning of the target language. Social media is used by language educators and individual learners that wish to communicate in the target language in a natural environment that allows multimodal communication, ease of sharing, and possibilities for feedback from peers and educators.

Social media in education is the practice of using social media platforms or technology to enhance the education of students. Social media is "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content". Social media platforms can be used to complete assignments or projects electronically. Students can benefit from engaging in activities that involve the use of computers and online platforms, as these opportunities can help them develop their skills in these areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Online learning in higher education</span> Development in distance education that began in the mid-1980s

Online learning involves courses offered by primary institutions that are 100% virtual. Online learning, or virtual classes offered over the internet, is contrasted with traditional courses taken in a brick-and-mortar school building. It is a development in distance education that expanded in the 1990s with the spread of the commercial Internet and the World Wide Web. The learner experience is typically asynchronous but may also incorporate synchronous elements. The vast majority of institutions utilize a learning management system for the administration of online courses. As theories of distance education evolve, digital technologies to support learning and pedagogy continue to transform as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Digital pedagogy</span>

Digital pedagogy is the study and use of contemporary digital technologies in teaching and learning. Digital pedagogy may be applied to online, hybrid, and face-to-face learning environments. Digital pedagogy also has roots in the theory of constructivism.

Virtual exchange is an instructional approach or practice for language learning. It broadly refers to the "notion of 'connecting' language learners in pedagogically structured interaction and collaboration" through computer-mediated communication for the purpose of improving their language skills, intercultural communicative competence, and digital literacies. Although it proliferated with the advance of the internet and web 2.0 technologies in the 1990s, its roots can be traced to learning networks pioneered by Célestin Freinet in 1920s and, according to Dooly, even earlier in Jardine's work with collaborative writing at the University of Glasgow at the end of the 17th to the early 18th century.

References

  1. ↑ Buckingham, David (2007-05-11). "Media education goes digital: an introduction". Learning, Media and Technology. 32 (2): 111–119. doi: 10.1080/17439880701343006 . ISSN   1743-9884. S2CID   62231997.
  2. ↑ "Technology and Digital Media in the Classroom: A Guide for Educators". Waterford.org. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
  3. 1 2 3 "The Evolution Of Technology In The Classroom | Purdue Online". Purdue University Online. Retrieved 2022-11-21.
  4. 1 2 3 4 F., Sharp, Vicki (2009). Computer education for teachers : integrating technology into classroom teaching. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-0-470-14110-6. OCLC   934259043.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ Smerdon, Becky (2000). Teachers' tools for the 21st century : a report on teachers' use of technology. National Center for Education Statistics. OCLC   45430598.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Bates, A. W. (Tony); Bates, A. W. (2015-04-05). "6.2 A short history of educational technology".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. ↑ Howard, Sarah K; Mozejko, Adrian (2015-09-25), "Considering the history of digital technologies in education", Teaching and Digital Technologies, Cambridge University Press, pp. 157–168, doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.017, ISBN   9781316091968 , retrieved 2022-12-13
  8. ↑ Wargo, Jon M.; Clayton, Kara (2018-10-02). "From PSAs to reel communities: exploring the sounds and silences of urban youth mobilizing digital media production". Learning, Media and Technology. 43 (4): 469–484. doi:10.1080/17439884.2018.1534859. ISSN   1743-9884. S2CID   69298607.
  9. ↑ Read "How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures" at NAP.edu. 2018. doi:10.17226/24783. ISBN   978-0-309-45964-8. S2CID   86766731.
  10. 1 2 Lohr, Anne; Stadler, Matthias; Schultz-Pernice, Florian; Chernikova, Olga; Sailer, Maximilian; Fischer, Frank; Sailer, Michael (June 2021). "On powerpointers, clickerers, and digital pros: Investigating the initiation of digital learning activities by teachers in higher education". Computers in Human Behavior. 119: 106715. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2021.106715 . ISSN   0747-5632. S2CID   232328365.
  11. 1 2 Buckingham, David (2007-05-11). "Media education goes digital: an introduction". Learning, Media and Technology. 32 (2): 111–119. doi: 10.1080/17439880701343006 . ISSN   1743-9884. S2CID   62231997.
  12. ↑ Plester, Beverly; Wood, Clare (July 2009). "Exploring Relationships Between Traditional and New Media Literacies: British Preteen Texters at School". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 14 (4): 1108–1129. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01483.x . ISSN   1083-6101.
  13. ↑ Arikan, Arda (2002). "Critical Media Literacy and ESL/EFL Classrooms". Transmediation in the Classroom: A Semiotics-Based Media Literacy Framework. 176: pp.=113-124 – via JSTOR.
  14. ↑ Buckingham, David (June 2007). "Media education goes digital: an introduction". Learning, Media and Technology. 32 (2): 111–119. doi: 10.1080/17439880701343006 . ISSN   1743-9884. S2CID   62231997.
  15. 1 2 Huntington, Heidi (2011). "Digital Media in Education: Expanding the Technology Acceptance Model". Rochester Institute of Technology – via ProQuest.
  16. ↑ Kellner, D, Douglas, J (2007). "Critical Media Literacy, Democracy, and the Reconstruction of Education". Media literacy: A reader.
  17. 1 2 Koltay, Tibor (2011-03-23). "The media and the literacies: media literacy, information literacy, digital literacy:". Media, Culture & Society. doi:10.1177/0163443710393382.
  18. ↑ Buckingham, David (2015). "Defining digital literacy-What do young people need to know about digital media?". Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy. 2006-2016: 25 – via Idunn.
  19. ↑ Long, Christopher P. (December 2010). "Cultivating Communities of Learning with Digital Media: Cooperative Education through Blogging and Podcasting". Teaching Philosophy: 361.
  20. 1 2 Maity, Sudarshan; Sahu, Tarak Nath; Sen, Nabanita (2020-12-10). "Panoramic view of digital education in COVID‐19: A new explored avenue". Review of Education. 9 (2): 405–423. doi: 10.1002/rev3.3250 . ISSN   2049-6613. S2CID   230589985.
  21. 1 2 C, Lloyd Chrispin; S, Agnes Daney Angela; R, Jayaraman; V, Jothiswaran V. (2020-05-10). "Web-Based Platforms for Virtual Learning". Biotica Research Today. 2 (5 Spl): 184–186. ISSN   2582-6654.
  22. 1 2 Burgess, Simon; Sievertsen, Hans Henrik (2020-04-01). "Schools, skills, and learning: The impact of COVID-19 on education". VoxEU.org. Retrieved 2021-10-31.
  23. ↑ Ionescu, Constantin Aurelian; Paschia, Liliana; Gudanescu Nicolau, Nicoleta Luminita; Stanescu, Sorina Geanina; Neacsu Stancescu, Veronica Maria; Coman, Mihaela Denisa; Uzlau, Marilena Carmen (2020-10-30). "Sustainability Analysis of the E-Learning Education System during Pandemic Period—COVID-19 in Romania". Sustainability. 12 (21): 9030. doi: 10.3390/su12219030 . ISSN   2071-1050.
  24. 1 2 Tanczer, Leonie Maria; Deibert, Ronald J; Bigo, Didier; Franklin, M I; Melgaço, Lucas; Lyon, David; Kazansky, Becky; Milan, Stefania (2019-10-09). "Online Surveillance, Censorship, and Encryption in Academia". International Studies Perspectives: ekz016. doi: 10.1093/isp/ekz016 . hdl: 11245.1/4649514b-e484-4ff4-a87f-454408ba30e0 . ISSN   1528-3577.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.