Euthanasia in Canada

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Euthanasia in Canada in its legal voluntary form is called Medical Assistance in Dying (MAiD, also spelled MAID) and it first became legal along with assisted suicide in June 2016 for those whose death was reasonably foreseeable. In March 2021, the law was further amended by Bill C-7 which to include those suffering from a grievous and irremediable condition whose death was not reasonably foreseeable. According to the Fourth Annual Report on MAID, there were 13,241 MAID deaths reported in Canada in 2022. [1]

Contents

The intensity and breadth of Canada's MAiD program has led to condemnation of its program by UN human rights experts and disability rights groups in Canada. [2] It has also been the subject of substantial international attention and criticism. [3] [4] [5] Human rights advocates have criticized Canada's euthanasia laws for lacking safeguards, devaluing the lives of disabled people, prompting health workers and doctors to suggest euthanasia to people who would not otherwise consider it, and killing people who were not receiving adequate government support to continue living. [2]

Background

Euthanasia was previously prohibited under the Criminal Code as a form of culpable homicide. [6] [7] The prohibition was overturned in a February 2015 decision by the Supreme Court of Canada in Carter v. Canada (Attorney General) , which ruled that the Criminal Code provisions that make it a crime to help a person end their life violate the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and that eligible adults with grievous and irremediable medical conditions are entitled to an assisted death. The Court delayed its suspension of invalidity for a period of 12 months, to allow Parliament the opportunity to amend its laws if it so chose. [8] In January 2016, the Court granted an additional four-month extension to the suspension to allow for further time. As an interim measure, it ruled that provincial courts can now begin approving applications for euthanasia pursuant to the criteria in the Carter decision. On 6 June 2016, the suspension of invalidity expired and the law was struck down. On 17 June 2016, a bill to legalize and regulate euthanasia passed in Canada's Parliament. [9] Ostensibly to prevent suicide tourism, Canada's current law makes euthanasia available only to residents eligible for Canadian healthcare coverage. [10]

The previous law's requirement that a natural death must be reasonably foreseeable and that the medical condition be grievous and irremediable medical condition had been controversial for how it limited the original Supreme Court of Canada ruling, mandating that euthanasia be made available to all adults with grievous and irremediable medical conditions. The British Columbia Civil Liberties Association (BCCLA) challenged the constitutionality of the previous law because it excluded people with long-term disabilities and those with "curable" medical conditions whose only treatment options people may find unacceptable. [11] The BCCLA argued these medical conditions should qualify under the court's definition of grievous and irremediable. [12] The BC Supreme Court and the Quebec Supreme court in Truchon ruled in 2019 that the law could not limit euthanasia only to individuals whose death was reasonably foreseeable. [13]

The current law prohibits mental illnesses as being considered as a grievous and irremediable condition, but this prohibition was initially set to expire on 17 March 2024. On 2 February 2023, the Canadian government introduced legislation to extend the temporary exclusion of eligibility in circumstances where a person's sole underlying medical condition is a mental illness for a period of one-year, until 17 March 2024. [14] In 2024, this was further delayed until 2027. [15] After this date, persons with a severe refractory mental illness will be eligible for medical assistance in dying, subject to any further amendments to the law or any new regulations. [16]

Canada's euthanasia law includes some legal safeguards aimed at preventing abuse and ensuring informed consent. Neither the legal witness nor the physicians involved can have any legal or financial interest in the outcomes of the patient. Consent must be repeatedly expressed, not implied, including in the moment right before death. Consent can be revoked at any time, in any manner. There are no consequences for backing out and there are no limits to how often it can be requested. Doctors are permitted to suggest euthanasia to patients, regardless of whether the patient has already said that they do not want it. To receive euthanasia, patients experiencing disease, disability or terminal illness must sign a written request expressing their wish to end their life in front of one independent witness who can confirm it was done willingly free of coercion. Next, two physicians and/or nurse practitioners must independently confirm their written agreement that the patient has an incurablegrievous and irremediable medical condition that is in an advanced state of irreversible decline, and that the patient is capable of receiving and willing to receive euthanasia. If their death is not reasonably foreseeable, a medical expert in the underlying medical condition must sign off on the request, their assessment must take at least 90 days, and they must be informed about and decline all other forms of treatment, including palliative care. [17]

Canada's law is consistent with many other nations that allow euthanasia in requiring at least two physicians to confirm the details of a diagnosis. [18] Canada's law no longer requires the presence of a terminal illness, unlike many other countries where euthanasia is only legal in those circumstances. [18] Canada's law is more restrictive than those of Belgium and the Netherlands in that it does not permit minors access to euthanasia. Canada will not allow euthanasia on the grounds of severe refractory mental illness, a practice allowed in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland, until at least 17 March 2027. [19] Canada's law is less restrictive in that it does not require a patient to have exhausted all other treatment options, unlike Beligum and the Netherlands. [2] While Belgium allows advanced directives in all circumstances, such advance directives in Canada may only be used if the patient's death is reasonably foreseeable. [20] Canada is the only country that allows nurses to administer the drugs used for euthanasia. [2]

Carter v. Canada (Attorney General) decision

On 15 June 2012, in a case filed by Gloria Taylor, the Supreme Court of British Columbia ruled that provisions in the Criminal Code prohibiting euthanasia were unconstitutional as they apply to severely disabled patients capable of giving consent. The lower court ruled that the Criminal Code provisions "infringe s. 7 [and s. 15 ] of the Charter, and are of no force and effect to the extent that they prohibit physician-assisted suicide by a medical practitioner in the context of a physician-patient relationship". Moreover, the court found that the relevant sections were legislatively overbroad, had a disproportionate effect on people with disabilities, and was "grossly disproportionate to the objectives it is meant to accomplish." [21] The case reached the Supreme Court of Canada in Carter v. Canada (Attorney General). The court ruled that the law banning euthanasia of terminally-ill patients (based on the Rodriguez v British Columbia (Attorney General) decision) was unconstitutional, and violated Section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. [22] The Supreme Court issued a 12-month suspended declaration of invalidity. [8] [23] As a result of the decision, euthanasia was expected to be made legal for "a competent adult person who (1) clearly consents to the termination of life and (2) has a grievous and irremediable medical condition (including an illness, disease or disability) that causes enduring suffering that is intolerable to the individual in the circumstances of his or her condition". [24] The court decision includes a requirement that there must be stringent limits that are "scrupulously monitored". This will require the death certificate to be completed by an independent medical examiner, not the treating physician, to ensure the accuracy of reporting the cause of death. [25]

Bill C-14

Parliament-Ottawa.jpg
Parliament of Canada
  • An Act to amend the Criminal Code and to make related amendments to other Acts (medical assistance in dying)
Enacted by Parliament of Canada
Royal assent 17 June 2016
Legislative history
Bill citationC-14, 42nd Parliament, 1st Session
Introduced by Jody Wilson-Raybould
First reading 14 April 2016
Second reading 4 May 2016
Third reading 31 May 2016
First reading31 May 2016
Second reading3 June 2016
Third reading15 June 2016

As required by the 2015 Supreme Court decision, Justice Minister Jody Wilson-Raybould tabled a bill in parliament in April 2016 to amend the Criminal Code to allow euthanasia. [26] Bill C-14 "create[s] exemptions from the offences of culpable homicide, of aiding suicide and of administering a noxious thing, in order to permit medical practitioners and nurse practitioners to provide medical assistance in dying and to permit pharmacists and other persons to assist in the process". [27] The bill restricted euthanasia only to mentally competent adults with "enduring and intolerable suffering" and in cases where death is reasonably foreseeable. It also mandated a 10-day reflection period. [26]

After the House of Commons passed Bill C-14 that would allow for euthanasia, it was debated in the Senate in mid-June 2016. Initially, that chamber amended the bill, expanding eligibility for euthanasia. However, when it became apparent that the elected House of Commons would not accept the amendment, a final vote was held on 18 June. At that time, a majority agreed with the restrictive wording provided by the House of Commons indicating that "only patients suffering from an incurable illness whose natural death is 'reasonably foreseeable' are eligible for a medically assisted death", as summarized by the Toronto Star . Some opponents to the law indicate that the Carter v. Canada (Attorney General) decision was broader, including desperately ill individuals and not only those who are terminally ill or near death. The House of Commons did accept a few Senate amendments, such as requiring that patients be counseled about alternatives including palliative care and barring beneficiaries from acting in the euthanasia. Senators such as Serge Joyal who disagree with the restrictive wording believe that the provinces should refer the issue to the Supreme Court of Canada for an opinion in order to preclude the need for individuals to proceed with such an Appeal and incur the significant expense of doing so. [28] There was also a debate on the issue of suicide in Indigenous communities with MP Robert-Falcon Ouellette (Liberal) voting against the government on C-14. This was the first instance of a government backbencher voting against their party. Ouellette believes that large-scale changes to social norms like euthanasia should move very slowly because the impacts will be felt differently across Canada and societies. [29]

Truchon v Attorney General of Canada

On 11 September 2019, the Superior Court of Quebec declared that restricting euthanasia to those whose death is reasonably foreseeable violated the Charter's guarantee to "life, liberty, and security of the person" as well as the Charter's guarantee of "equal protection" under the law. [30] The ruling declared the reasonably foreseeable clause in the federal euthanasia legislation to be unconstitutional. Neither the Attorney General of Canada or the Attorney General of Quebec appealed the decision. [13]

Bill C-7

The federal government passed Bill C-7 on 17 March 2021. [31] The new legislation relaxed or eliminated some of the safeguards for patients whose deaths were reasonably foreseeable, notably removing the 10-day waiting period, requiring only a single independent witness, and removing the requirement to offer palliative care. The legislation also introduced a new avenue for those whose death was not reasonably foreseeable to access euthanasia, conditional on the approval of medical practitioner who specialized in the underlying condition, a 90-day assessment period, and discussion on all other available treatment methods. The legislation also included a sunset clause that would allow people with severe refractory mental illnesses that have exhausted all treatment options to be eligible for euthanasia two years after the legislation passed. This clause has been particularly controversial due to the perceived difficulty of receiving informed consent from individuals suffering from a mental illness, particularly when the mental illness is already associated with a suicidal ideation. [32] However, multiple studies show that the majority of people with mental illnesses do not lack the mental competence or the capacity to make treatment-related decisions. [33] [34] [35] [36] This expansion in access to medical assistance in dying was originally planned for March 2023 before being postponed by one year to 17 March 2024. [37] It was further postponed to 2027. [38]

A panel was established by the government to study potential issues and safeguards with implementing medical assistance in dying for people whose sole medical condition was a mental illness. [39] A report of this process was given to parliament on 6 May 2022. The panel had nineteen recommendations that could be implemented without amending the Criminal Code. Some arguments addressed to the panel suggested that there was no evidence that safeguards and protocols could be adequate and thus the panel's mandate could not be fulfilled. The panel concluded that despite these uncertainties, people could still voluntarily wish to request medical assistance in dying and thus its mandate could be fulfilled. [40] One member of the panel, Ellen Cohen, resigned for ethical reasons. Cohen believes that the issues faced by those in poverty or seeking housing was not adequately considered by the rest of the panel. [41] A person can simultaneously seek medical assistance in dying while waiting for other treatments. [42]

Statistics

There have been 44,958 MAID deaths reported in Canada since the introduction of legislation in 2016. In 2022, 13,241 MAID provisions reported in Canada, accounting for 4.1% of all deaths in Canada, this represents a growth rate of 31.2% over 2021. The average age of individuals at the time MAID was provided in 2022 was 77.0 years. The underlying medical conditions included cancer (63%), cardiovascular (18.8%), other at 14.9% (can be frailty, diabetes, chronic pain, autoimmune), respiratory (13.2%), and neurological conditions (12.6%). Seventy-seven percent of MAID recipients received palliative care and of the MAID recipients who did not receive palliative care 87.5% had access, a level similar to the three previous years. [43]

NLPENSNBQCONMBSKABBCYTNTNUCanada
2016––249494191241163194–––1,018 [43]
2017––62498538396357205677–––2,838 [43]
2018238126921,2361,5001388530795112––4,480 [43]
201918201471411,6021,788177973771,28013––5,661 [43]
202049371881602,2752,3782141575551,57213––7,603 [43]
202165402452043,2813,1022452435912,03015––10,064 [43]
202290442742474,8013,9342232578362,51516––13,241 [43]
Total 2016–20222671561,06890314,57813,7321,0849142,9379,21984––44,958 [43]

Reception

Before euthanasia was made legal in Quebec in June 2014, [44] the Quebec College of Physicians had declared that it was prepared to cross the line on the debate over euthanasia and proposed that it be included as part of the appropriate care in certain particular circumstances. [45] The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) describes euthanasia as "one of the most complex and ethically challenging issues facing Canadian physicians". [46] Before the legalization of euthanasia, the organization stated that it is not up to them to decide on the issue of euthanasia, but the responsibility of society. The organization also reported that not all doctors were willing to help a terminally-ill patient die. [47]

A 2015 survey indicated that 29% of Canadian doctors surveyed would consider providing euthanasia while 63% would refuse. [48] However, the belief in late 2015 was that no physician would be forced to do so. [49] The extent of conscientious objection to providing euthanasia continues to be debated on issues such as whether objecting physicians must refer patients to a doctor who is willing to provide euthanasia and whether institutions have a right to refuse to provide euthanasia services; at present doctors are required to make effective referrals. [50] [51] Catholic hospitals often refuse to provide healthcare that goes against the institution's tenants, such as abortion or euthanasia. [52]

A 2023 survey by the Angus Reid Insititute showed 61% of Canadians supported the current version of the legislation, while 31% supported extending euthanasia to mental disorders. [53] A poll conducted by Leger in the summer of 2022 regarding further liberalization of Canada's euthanasia laws found that 51% of Canadians supported expanding euthanasia to mature minors, with 23% opposed and 26% being unsure. 65% supported advanced directives in the face of a worsening cognitive condition, with 14% opposed and 22% being unsure. 45% supported expanding eligibility for euthanasia to include individuals with serious mental health illnesses, with 23% opposed and 32% being unsure of their position. [54]

Criticism

In 2021, the United Nations Human Rights Council's special rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities criticized Bill C-7 and assisted death in general, for undermining both disabled people’s equal right to live and their ability to autonomously access support to continue living. [3] An estimated 25% of disabled Canadian adults live in poverty. Money available through social programs differs across provinces but is often below the poverty threshold: New Brunswick offers the least at $705 per month and Alberta offers the most at $1,685 per month. [55] In an August 2023 paper, Medical Assistance in Dying, Palliative Care, Safety, and Structural Vulnerability, the authors argued that while socioeconomic deprivation drives mortality to a large degree, it does not drive medical assistance in dying to any substantial degree. [56] Another 2023 paper, The Realities of Medical Assistance in Dying in Canada, concluded that "The Canadian MAiD regime is lacking the safeguards, data collection, and oversight necessary to protect Canadians against premature death." [57]

In certain cases, family members are not informed that their relative has died through MAID, as individuals have a right to medical privacy. While standard reviews of MAID cases may be conducted, [58] Canada's process has been criticized for lacking regional panels and oversight processes that other countries with legal euthanasia provide. [59]

Handling of specific cases

In addition to broader criticism of MAID, the handling of certain cases have been subject to media coverage. These include:

See also

Related Research Articles

Euthanasia is the practice of intentionally ending life to eliminate pain and suffering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Assisted suicide</span> Suicide undertaken with aid from another person

Assisted suicide – sometimes referred to as medical aid in dying – means a procedure in which people take medications to end their own lives with the help of others, usually medical professionals. The term usually refers to physician-assisted suicide (PAS), which is an end of life measure for a person suffering a painful, terminal illness. Once it is determined that the person's situation qualifies under the physician-assisted suicide laws for that location, the physician's assistance is usually limited to writing a prescription for a lethal dose of drugs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rights of the Terminally Ill Act 1995</span> Law of the Northern Territory, Australia

The Rights of the Terminally Ill Act 1995 (NT) was a law legalising euthanasia in the Northern Territory of Australia, which was passed by the territory's Legislative Assembly on 1995. The Act was passed by the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly on 25 May 1995 by a vote of 15 to 10, received the Administrator's assent on 16 June 1995, and entered into force on 1 July 1996. A year later, a repeal bill was brought before the Northern Territory Parliament in August 1996, but was defeated by 14 votes to 11.

The right to die is a concept based on the opinion that human beings are entitled to end their life or undergo voluntary euthanasia. Possession of the right to die is often bestowed with the understanding that a person with a terminal illness, incurable pain, or without the will to continue living should be allowed to end their own life, use assisted suicide, or decline life-prolonging treatment. The question of who, if anyone, may be empowered to make this decision is often the subject of debate.

Voluntary euthanasia is the ending of a person's life at their request in order to relieve them of suffering. Voluntary euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide (PAS) have been the focus of intense debate in recent years. Some forms of voluntary euthanasia are legal in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Spain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Suicide legislation</span> Laws concerning suicide around the world

Suicide is a crime in some parts of the world. However, while suicide has been decriminalized in many countries, the act is almost universally stigmatized and discouraged. In some contexts, suicide could be utilized as an extreme expression of liberty, as is exemplified by its usage as an expression of devout dissent towards perceived tyranny or injustice which occurred occasionally in cultures such as ancient Rome, medieval Japan, or today's Tibet Autonomous Region.

Euthanasia in the Netherlands is regulated by the "Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide Act" which was passed in 2001 and took effect in 2002. It states that euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are not punishable if the attending physician acts in accordance with criteria of due care. These criteria concern the patient's request, the patient's suffering, the information provided to the patient, the absence of reasonable alternatives, consultation of another physician and the applied method of ending life. To demonstrate their compliance, the Act requires physicians to report euthanasia to a review committee.

Involuntary Euthanasia is currently illegal in all 50 states of the United States. Assisted suicide is legal in 10 jurisdictions in the US: Washington, D.C. and the states of California, Colorado, Oregon, Vermont, New Mexico, Maine, New Jersey, Hawaii, and Washington. The status of assisted suicide is disputed in Montana, though currently authorized per the Montana Supreme Court's ruling in Baxter v. Montana that "nothing in Montana Supreme Court precedent or Montana statutes [indicates] that physician aid in dying is against public policy."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dignity in Dying</span> UK pro-euthanasia organisation

Dignity in Dying is a United Kingdom nationwide campaigning organisation. It is funded by voluntary contributions from members of the public, and as of December 2010, it claimed to have 25,000 actively subscribing supporters. The organisation declares it is independent of any political, religious or other affiliations, and has the stated primary aim of campaigning for individuals to have greater choice and more control over end-of-life decisions, so as to alleviate any suffering they may be undergoing as they near the end of their life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legality of euthanasia</span>

The legality of euthanasia varies between countries and territories. Efforts to change government policies on euthanasia of humans in the 20th and 21st centuries have met with limited success in Western countries. Human euthanasia policies have also been developed by a variety of NGOs, most advocacy organisations although medical associations express a range of perspectives, and supporters of palliative care broadly oppose euthanasia.

Euthanasia became legal in New Zealand when the End of Life Choice Act 2019 took full effect on 7 November 2021. It is illegal to "aid and abet suicide" under Section 179 of the New Zealand Crimes Act 1961. The clauses of this act make it an offence to "incite, procure or counsel" and "aid and abet" someone else to commit suicide, regardless of whether a suicide attempt is made or not. Section 179 covers both coercion to undertake assisted suicide and true suicide, such as that caused by bullying. This will not change under the End of Life Choices Act 2019, which has provisions on coercion of terminally ill people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Euthanasia in Australia</span> Legal history of euthanasia in Australia

Laws regarding euthanasia or assisted suicide in Australia are matters for state and territory governments. As of November 2023 all states have implemented legislation creating an assisted suicide scheme for eligible individuals. These laws typically refer to assisted suicide as "voluntary assisted dying".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Assisted suicide in the United States</span> Medically-induced suicide with help from another person

Assisted suicide is suicide with the aid of another person. In the United States, the term "assisted suicide" is typically used to describe what proponents refer to as medical aid in dying, in which terminally ill adults are prescribed and self-administer barbiturates if they feel that they are suffering significantly. The term is often used interchangeably with physician-assisted suicide (PAS), "physician-assisted dying", "physician-assisted death", "assisted death" and "medical aid in dying" (MAiD).

Both Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide are illegal in the United Kingdom and could be prosecuted as murder or manslaughter.

Terminal dehydration is dehydration to the point of death. Some scholars make a distinction between "terminal dehydration" and "termination by dehydration". Courts in the United States generally do not recognize prisoners as having a right to die by voluntary dehydration, since they view it as suicide.

<i>Carter v Canada (AG)</i> Decision of the Supreme Court of Canada

Carter v Canada (AG), 2015 SCC 5 is a landmark Supreme Court of Canada decision where the prohibition of assisted suicide was challenged as contrary to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ("Charter") by several parties, including the family of Kay Carter, a woman suffering from degenerative spinal stenosis, and Gloria Taylor, a woman suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ("ALS"). In a unanimous decision on February 6, 2015, the Court struck down the provision in the Criminal Code, thereby giving Canadian adults who are mentally competent and suffering intolerably and enduringly the right to a doctor's assistance in dying. This ruling overturned the Supreme Court's 1993 ruling in Rodriguez v British Columbia (AG), which had denied a right to assisted suicide.

Lecretia Anne Seales was a New Zealand lawyer who, upon suffering a brain tumour and enduring treatments for it, became an advocate of physician-assisted dying.

<i>Seales v Attorney-General</i>

Seales v Attorney-General[2015] NZHC 1239 was a 2015 court case concerned with whether a doctor could assist a terminally ill patient in ending her own life. Wellington lawyer Lecretia Seales, terminally ill from a brain tumour, sought High Court declarations to the effect that her doctor would not be committing murder, manslaughter or assisting a suicide if he assisted in her euthanasia. Seales also sought, as an alternative, that the court make declarations that the Crimes Act was not consistent with the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. The Court declined to make any of the declarations sought by Seales. Seales died of her illness the day after the judgment was delivered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">End of Life Choice Act 2019</span> Act of Parliament in New Zealand

The End of Life Choice Act 2019 is an Act of Parliament in New Zealand that gives people with a terminal illness the option of receiving assisted suicide or euthanasia. The act came into force on 7 November 2021, twelve months after the 2020 euthanasia referendum was declared in favour of the legislation.

Euthanasia for mental illness involves a physician intentionally ending the life of a patient who has requested euthanasia due to a psychiatric condition. The practice is legal in Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Spain and Colombia. In Canada, legislation authorizing the procedure was passed, but has since been repeatedly postponed.

References

  1. ↑ "Fourth annual report on Medical Assistance in Dying in Canada 2022". www.canada.ca. 26 October 2023. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Cheng, Maria (11 August 2022). "'Disturbing': Experts troubled by Canada's euthanasia laws". Associated Press . Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  3. 1 2 "As Bill C-7 reaches Senate, UN watchdog raises concerns about MAiD for persons with disabilities". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2 February 2021.
  4. ↑ Zhu, Yuan Yi (31 December 2022). "Most-read 2022: Why is Canada euthanising the poor?". The Spectator. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
  5. ↑ "As assisted dying broadens, countries wrestle with new ethical lines". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN   0882-7729 . Retrieved 8 March 2023.
  6. ↑ "CE PRODUIT EST INTROUVABLE". www.editionsyvonblais.com. Archived from the original on 14 August 2019. Retrieved 14 August 2019.
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  8. 1 2 Carter v. Canada (Attorney General) , 2015 SCC 5 at para 128
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  11. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 14 January 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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  34. ↑ Rooney, W.; Schuklenk, U.; Van De Vathorst, S. (2018). "Are Concerns About Irremediableness, Vulnerability, or Competence Sufficient to Justify Excluding All Psychiatric Patients from Medical Aid in Dying?". Health Care Analysis. 26 (4): 326–343. doi:10.1007/s10728-017-0344-8. PMID   28624976. S2CID   4054272.
  35. ↑ Dembo, J.; Schuklenk, U.; Reggler, J. (2018). ""For Their Own Good": A Response to Popular Arguments Against Permitting Medical Assistance in Dying (MAID) where Mental Illness is the Sole Underlying Condition". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 63 (7): 451–456. doi:10.1177/0706743718766055. PMC   6099778 . PMID   29635929.
  36. ↑ Bahji, A.; Delva, N. (2022). "Making a case for the inclusion of refractory and severe mental illness as a sole criterion for Canadians requesting medical assistance in dying (MAiD): A review". Journal of Medical Ethics. 48 (11): 929–934. doi:10.1136/medethics-2020-107133. PMID   33849958. S2CID   233233285.
  37. ↑ Lavery, Irelyne. "Feds looking to delay expansion of assisted dying: 'Need to get this right'". Global News. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  38. ↑ Baxter, David. "Medically assisted death for mental illness delayed until 2027: minister". Global News. Retrieved 16 May 2024.
  39. ↑ "Canada's medical assistance in dying (MAID) law". Government of Canada. 17 March 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  40. ↑ "Final Report of the Expert Panel on MAiD and Mental Illness". Government of Canada. 13 May 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  41. ↑ Cohen, Ellen. "Why I resigned from the federal expert panel on medical assistance in dying". Globe and Mail. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
  42. ↑ "9 things to know about medical assistance in dying for mental illness". CTV News. 23 January 2023.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Fourth annual report on Medical Assistance in Dying in Canada 2022". www.canada.ca. 26 October 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
  44. ↑ Shingler, Benjamin (22 December 2015). "Quebec's top court rules assisted dying law can go ahead". CBC News. CBC/Radio Canada. Retrieved 5 January 2016. Quebec's Court of Appeal has maintained the province's right to allow terminally ill patients the choice to die with medical help, the first law of its kind in Canada.
  45. ↑ Séguin, Rhéal (16 July 2009). "Quebec physicians tentatively propose legal euthanasia". The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  46. ↑ "Medical Assistance in Dying". Canadian Medical Association. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  47. ↑ Whiting, Raymond (2002), A Natural Right to Die: Twenty-Three Centuries of Debate, Westport, Connecticut, p. 41{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  48. ↑ Vogel, Lauren (2015). "Many doctors won't provide assisted dying". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 187 (13): E409–E410. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-5136. ISSN   0820-3946. PMC   4577361 . PMID   26323700.
  49. ↑ "Canadian doctors express mixed opinions on assisted dying". CTV News. Bell Media. The Canadian Press. 27 December 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
  50. ↑ Sumner, L. W. (2020). "Conscientious refusal to provide medically assisted dying". University of Toronto Law Journal. 71 (1): 1–31. doi:10.3138/utlj-2020-0053. S2CID   225245227.
  51. ↑ Carpenter, Travis; Vivas, Lucas (2020). "Ethical arguments against coercing provider participation in MAiD (medical assistance in dying) in Ontario, Canada". BMC Medical Ethics. 21 (1): 46. doi: 10.1186/s12910-020-00486-2 . PMC   7271423 . PMID   32493374.
  52. ↑ Fraser, Laura. "When it comes to physician-assisted death, could religious hospitals ethically refuse?". CBC News. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
  53. ↑ "Canadians supportive of assisted dying law but wary of mental health expansion: poll". Global News . 13 February 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
  54. ↑ Leger (7 July 2022). "Attitudes Towards Medical Assistance in Dying (MAID)" (PDF).
  55. ↑ Leffler, Brennan; Dimain, Mariane. "How poverty, not pain, is driving Canadians with disabilities to consider medically-assisted death". Global News. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
  56. ↑ Downar, James; MacDonald, Susan; Buchman, Sandy (September 2023). "Medical Assistance in Dying, Palliative Care, Safety, and Structural Vulnerability". Journal of Palliative Medicine. 26 (9): 1175–1179. doi:10.1089/jpm.2023.0210. ISSN   1096-6218. PMID   37404196. S2CID   259333477.
  57. ↑ Coelho, Ramona; Maher, John; Gaind, K. Sonu; Lemmens, Trudo (18 July 2023). "The realities of Medical Assistance in Dying in Canada". Palliative & Supportive Care. 21 (5): 871–878. doi: 10.1017/S1478951523001025 . ISSN   1478-9515. PMID   37462416. S2CID   259948084.
  58. ↑ "This family learned loved one had medically assisted death only after she was gone". CBC Radio. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
  59. ↑ Anderssen, Erin. "A complicated grief: Living in the aftermath of a family member's death by MAID". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  60. ↑ "'The solution is assisted life': Offered death, terminally ill Ont. man files lawsuit". CTV News. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  61. ↑ "Woman with chemical sensitivities chose medically-assisted death after failed bid to get better housing". CTVNews. 13 April 2022. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  62. ↑ "Medical Assistance in Dying: Choices for Canadians" (PDF). Parliament of Canada. February 2023.
  63. ↑ "Ontario man applying for medically-assisted death as alternative to being homeless". CityNews. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  64. ↑ Barker, Matthew. "St. Catharines man who was about to access medical assistance in dying saved through generosity of others". St. Catharines Standard. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  65. ↑ Passifiume, Bryan (24 November 2022). "Another Canadian Forces member alleges Veterans Affairs offered assisted death as 'support'". National Post. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  66. ↑ Brewster, Murray (1 December 2022). "Former paralympian tells MPs veterans department offered her assisted death". CBC News. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  67. ↑ Brewster, Murray (5 December 2022). "Veterans Affairs says it has no proof former paralympian was offered assisted death". CBC News. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  68. ↑ Woo, Andrea (9 August 2023). "Vancouver hospital defends suggesting MAID to suicidal patient as risk assessment tool". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
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