Gender polarization

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Boys are encouraged to play with toy trucks. USMC-071102-M-0408H-157.jpg
Boys are encouraged to play with toy trucks.
Girls are encouraged to play with dolls. Girl with doll standing by fence1a34429v.jpg
Girls are encouraged to play with dolls.

In sociology, gender polarization is a concept created by American psychologist Sandra Bem which states that societies tend to define femininity and masculinity as polar opposite genders, such that male-acceptable behaviors and attitudes are not seen as appropriate for women, and vice versa. [1] [2] The theory is an extension of the sex and gender distinction in sociology in which sex refers to the biological differences between men and women, while gender refers to the cultural differences between them, such that gender describes the "socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women". [3] According to Bem, gender polarization begins when natural sex differences are exaggerated in culture; for example, women have less hair than men, [4] and men have more muscles than women, but these physical differences are exaggerated culturally when women remove hair from their faces and legs and armpits, and when men engage in body building exercises to emphasize their muscle mass. [5] She explained that gender polarization goes further, when cultures construct "differences from scratch to make the sexes even more different from one another than they would otherwise be", perhaps by dictating specific hair styles for men and women, which are noticeably distinct, or separate clothing styles for men and women. [5] When genders become polarized, according to the theory, there is no overlap, no shared behaviors or attitudes between men and women; rather, they are distinctly opposite. [1] She argued that these distinctions become so "all-encompassing" that they "pervade virtually every aspect of human existence", not just hairstyles and clothing but how men and women express emotion and experience sexual desire. [6] She argued that male-female differences are "superimposed on so many aspects of the social world that a cultural connection is thereby forged between sex and virtually every other aspect of human experience". [7]

Contents

Bem saw gender polarization as an organizing principle upon which many of the basic institutions of a society are built. [8] For example, rules based on gender polarization have been codified into law. [8] In western society in the fairly recent past, such rules have prevented women from voting, holding political office, going to school, owning property, serving in the armed forces, entering certain professions, or playing specific sports. [8] For example, the first modern Olympics was a male-only sporting event from which women were excluded, and this has been identified as a prime example of gender polarization. [8] In addition, the term has been applied to literary criticism. [9]

According to Scott Coltrane and Michele Adams, gender polarization begins early in childhood when girls are encouraged to prefer pink over blue, and when boys are encouraged to prefer toy trucks over dolls, and the male-female distinction is communicated to children in countless ways. [10] Children learn by observing others and by direct tutelage what they "can and cannot do in terms of gendered behavior", according to Elizabeth Lindsey and Walter Zakahi. [11] Bem argued that gender polarization defines mutually exclusive scripts for being male and female. [8] The scripts can have a powerful influence on how a person develops; for example, if a person is a male, then he will likely grow to develop specific ways of looking at the world, with certain behaviors seen as 'masculine', and learn to dress, walk, talk, and even think in a socially-approved way for men. Further, any deviation from these scripts was seen as problematic, possibly defined as "immoral acts" which flout religious customs, or seen as "psychologically pathological". [8] [12] Bem argued that because of past polarization, women were often restricted to family-oriented roles in the private sphere, while men were seen as professional representatives in the public sphere. [13] Cultures vary substantially by what is considered to be appropriate for masculine and feminine roles, and by how emotions are expressed. [14]

Traditional Gender Roles

Traditional gender roles refer to societal expectations and norms that dictate people's behaviors, attitudes, and responsibilities based on their perceived sex or gender. Throughout history, these roles have often been rigid and dichotomous with men expected to be providers and assertive and women were supposed to do the caregiving and domestic roles. These roles not only shape individuals' behavior but also influence societal institutions such as family dynamics, employment opportunities, and legal rights. Despite evolving understandings of gender, traditional gender roles continue to influence expectations and perceptions in many cultures, impacting individuals' self-expression and opportunities. [15]

Historical Examples

Ancient Greece

Men were primarily seen as active citizens, engaged in public life, politics, and warfare. They held legal rights, participated in philosophical discussions, and were considered the heads of households. On the other hand, women were mostly confined to the private sphere to focus on domestic duties and child-rearing. Their roles were restricted and limited their participation in public life and education. This strict division of roles and expectations created a clear distinction between masculinity and femininity. [16]

Renaissance

Artemesia Gentileschi Clio-detail.png

Roles were predominantly the same as in Ancient Greece however there were some differences. The Renaissance brought some advancements in women's education and artistic endeavors but these were often exceptions rather than the norm. For example, Artemisia Gentileschi was an Italian baroque painter and is considered one of the most influential artists in a male-dominated sphere. Similarly, Laura Cereta was an Italian humanist who wrote mainly literary works advocating for women's education and intellectual pursuits. [17]

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and individual rights initially sparked discussions on gender equality, yet traditional roles largely persisted.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution saw a transformation in work, with more women entering factories and mills, particularly in textile industries. While this provided new employment opportunities for women outside the home, they often faced poor working conditions and low wages. Despite these changes, women's roles in the public sphere remained limited, and gender polarization persisted, reinforcing distinct expectations and constraints based on gender. [18]

Suffrage Movement

Gender polarization underwent significant changes during the Suffrage Movement as there was advocating for women's right to vote. This challenged traditional gender roles and norms by demanding political equality. [19]

World Wars

We Can Do It! NARA 535413 - Restoration 2.jpg

Women's involvement in World War I and II further disrupted conventional roles as they took on jobs traditionally held by men while men were at war. These shifts contributed to changing perceptions of women's capabilities and roles in society. However, the post-war period saw a return to traditional gender roles, highlighting the enduring nature of gender polarization.

Evolutionary Perspective

In hunter-gatherer societies, gender polarization was rooted in the division of labor based on biological differences. Men typically engaged in hunting and providing food and protection. Women focused on gathering, childcare, and domestic tasks. These roles were influenced by physical attributes. For example, men's strength and stamina suited them for hunting while women's reproductive roles and gathering skills were valued. This division of labor reinforced distinct gender roles with men and women having separate spheres of activity and responsibility. Overall, this established an early form of gender polarization based on biological differences and societal needs. [20]

Contemporary Gender Polarization

Third-wave feminism has critiqued traditional gender binaries which challenges the strict categorization of masculinity and femininity. This movement emphasizes fluidity and intersectionality and advocates for a broader understanding of gender identities and expressions. There has been significant progress in LGBTQ+ rights and acceptance which also challenges societal norms around gender and sexuality. However, debates on gender polarization persist in today's day and age with discussions often center on representation, stereotypes, and the impact of gender norms on individuals and society at large.

Intersex

Intersex individuals challenge the traditional binary understanding of gender polarization which categorizes people strictly as male or female based on biological sex characteristics. Intersex people are born with variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female such as variations in chromosomes, genitalia, and/or reproductive anatomy. [21]

Intersectionality

Different cultural norms and values can either reinforce or challenge traditional gender roles, adding layers of complexity to individual identities. Socioeconomic status significantly impacts gender experiences, with economic disparities often amplifying gender inequalities. Within marginalized communities, gender polarization can be especially pronounced as individuals navigate multiple layers of discrimination and exclusion. [22]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender</span> Characteristics distinguishing between different gender identities

Gender includes the social, psychological, cultural and behavioral aspects of being a man, woman, or other gender identity. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures and gender expression. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other ; those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. A number of societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman," such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders. Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization.

A gender role, or sex role, is a set of socially accepted behaviors and attitudes deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity, although there are exceptions and variations.

Dominator culture refers to a model of society where fear and force maintain rigid understandings of power and superiority within a hierarchical structure. Futurist and writer Riane Eisler first popularized this term in her book The Chalice and the Blade. In it, Eisler positions the dominator model in contrast to the partnership model, a more egalitarian structure of society founded on mutual respect among its inhabitants. In dominator culture, men rule over women, whereas partnership culture values men and women equally.

Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent, and consistent with the individual's gender identity. Gender expression typically reflects a person's gender identity, but this is not always the case. While a person may express behaviors, attitudes, and appearances consistent with a particular gender role, such expression may not necessarily reflect their gender identity. The term gender identity was coined by psychiatry professor Robert J. Stoller in 1964 and popularized by psychologist John Money.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomboy</span> A girl who behaves in a manner considered typical of boys

Tomboy is a term used for girls or young women with masculine traits. It can include wearing androgynous or unfeminine clothing and engaging in physical sports or other activities and behaviors usually associated with boys or men.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Femininity</span> Attributes associated with women

Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is conceptually distinct from both the female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender.

Role theory is a concept in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting-out of socially defined categories. Each role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms, and behaviors that a person has to face and fulfill. The model is based on the observation that people behave in a predictable way, and that an individual's behavior is context specific, based on social position and other factors. Research conducted on role theory mainly centers around the concepts of consensus, role conflict, role taking, and conformity. The theatre is a metaphor often used to describe role theory.

Nancy Julia Chodorow is an American sociologist and professor. She began her career as a professor of Women's studies at Wellesley College in 1973, and from 1974 on taught at the University of California, Santa Cruz, until 1986. She then was a professor in the departments of sociology and clinical psychology at the University of California, Berkeley until she resigned in 1986, after which she taught psychiatry at Harvard Medical School/Cambridge Health Alliance. Chodorow is often described as a leader in feminist thought, especially in the realms of psychoanalysis and psychology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sociology of gender</span> Branch of the discipline of sociology

Sociology of gender is a prominent subfield of sociology. Social interaction directly correlated with sociology regarding social structure. One of the most important social structures is status. This is determined based on position that an individual possesses which effects how they will be treated by society. One of the most important statuses an individual claims is gender. Public discourse and the academic literature generally use the term gender for the perceived or projected (self-identified) masculinity or femininity of a person.

While in ordinary speech, the terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably, in contemporary academic literature, the terms often have distinct meanings, especially when referring to people. Sex generally refers to an organism's biological sex, while gender usually refers to either social roles typically associated with the sex of a person or personal identification of one's own gender based on an internal awareness. Most contemporary social scientists, behavioral scientists and biologists, many legal systems and government bodies, and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO make a distinction between gender and sex.

Sandra Ruth Lipsitz Bem was an American psychologist known for her works in androgyny and gender studies. Her pioneering work on gender roles, gender polarization and gender stereotypes led directly to more equal employment opportunities for women in the United States.

The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) is a measure of masculinity and femininity, and is used to research gender roles. It assesses how people identify themselves psychologically. Sandra Bem's goal of the BSRI was to examine psychological androgyny and provide empirical evidence to show the advantage of a shared masculine and feminine personality versus a sex-typed categorization. The test is formatted with 60 different personality traits which participants rate themselves based on a 7-point Likert scale. Traits are evenly dispersed, 20 masculine, 20 feminine, and 20 filler traits thought to be gender neutral. All traits in the BSRI are positively valued personality aspects. Numerous past studies have found that gender categorizations are correlated with many stereotypical gendered behaviors.

Gender schema theory is a cognitive theory to explain how individuals become gendered in society, and how sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. The theory was formally introduced by Sandra Bem in 1981. Gender-associated information is predominantly transmuted through society by way of schemata, or networks of information that allow for some information to be more easily assimilated than others. The theory argues that there are individual differences in the degree to which people hold these gender schemata. These differences are manifested via the degree to which individuals are sex-typed.

Androgyny is the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics. Androgyny may be expressed with regard to biological sex, gender identity, or gender expression.

Feminist psychology is a form of psychology centered on social structures and gender. Feminist psychology critiques historical psychological research as done from a male perspective with the view that males are the norm. Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and principles of feminism.

Gender essentialism is a theory which attributes distinct, intrinsic qualities to women and men. Based in essentialism, it holds that there are certain universal, innate, biologically based features of gender that are at the root of many of the group differences observed in the behavior of men and women. In Western civilization, it is suggested in writings going back to ancient Greece. With the advent of Christianity, the earlier Greek model was expressed in theological discussions as the doctrine that there are two distinct sexes, male and female, created by God, and that individuals are immutably one or the other. This view remained largely unchanged until the middle of the 19th century. This changed the locus of the origin of the essential differences from religion to biology, in Sandra Bem's words, "from God's grand creation [to] its scientific equivalent: evolution's grand creation," but the belief in an immutable origin had not changed.

The social construction of gender is a theory in the humanities and social sciences about the manifestation of cultural origins, mechanisms, and corollaries of gender perception and expression in the context of interpersonal and group social interaction. Specifically, the social construction of gender theory stipulates that gender roles are an achieved "status" in a social environment, which implicitly and explicitly categorize people and therefore motivate social behaviors.

Gender policing is the imposition or enforcement of normative gender expressions on an individual who is perceived as not adequately performing, through appearance or behavior, their gender or sex that was assigned to them at birth. According to Judith Butler, rejection of individuals who are non-normatively gendered is a component of creating one's own gender identity. Gender mainstreaming is a public policy concept, whereas gender policing is a more general social phenomenon.

Gendered sexuality is the way in which gender and sexuality are often viewed as likened constructs, whereby the role of gender in an individual's life is informed by and impacts others' perceptions of their sexuality. For example, both the male and female genders are subject to assumptions of heterosexuality. If a man were to behave in feminine ways, his heterosexuality would be doubted, and individuals may assume that he is gay.

In feminist theory, heteropatriarchy or cisheteropatriarchy, is a socio-political system where (primarily) cisgender and heterosexual males have authority over other cisgender males, females, and people with other sexual orientations and gender identities. It is a term that emphasizes that discrimination against women and LGBT people is derived from the same sexist social principle.

References

  1. 1 2 Christine Monnier, 2011, Global Sociology, Gendered Society – Basic Concepts Archived 2014-08-26 at the Wayback Machine , Retrieved August 22, 2014, "... Another aspect of such a list of gender traits is that there is no overlap ... societies and cultures create polarized version of gender where one is the opposite of the other...Popular culture is indeed a major conveyor ... "
  2. Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration, Robyn Ryle, Pine Forge Press, 2012, , Retrieved August 22, 2014, Chapter 4 page 135, "..Gender polarization ... describes the way in which behaviors and attitudes that are viewed as appropriate for men are seen as inappropriate for women and vice versa...."
  3. What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"? (World Health Organization (WHO > Programmes and Projects > Gender, Women and Health)), as accessed August 24, 2010 (no author or date & boldfacing omitted).
  4. 5 October 2013, BBC, Why can men grow facial hair but women cannot, Retrieved May 24, 2016, "...Androgens are present in both sexes ... Men have more androgens than women..."
  5. 1 2 Sandra Lipsitz Bem, A Nation Divided: Diversity, Inequality, and Community in American Society, edited by Phyllis Moen, Donna Dempster-McClain, Henry A. Walker, Cornell University Press, 1999, Gender, Sexuality and Inequality: When Many Become One, Who is the One and What Happens to the Others?, Retrieved August 22, 2014, (page 78) "...Gender polarization at the simplest level is just the cultural exaggeration of whatever sex differences exist naturally ..."
  6. 1993, Yale University, The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality, Sandra L. Bem, Gender polarization, Retrieved August 22, 2014, (see chapter 4 page 80:) "...gender polarization,...Social life is so linked to this distinction that the all-encompassing division between male and female would still pervade virtually every aspect of human existence..."
  7. Greenbaum, Vicky. "Seeing through the Lenses of Gender: Beyond Male/Female Polarization". English Journal 88.3 (January 1999): 96–99, Seeing through the Lenses of Gender: Beyond Male/Female Polarization, Retrieved August 22, 2014, (Bem) "...gender polarization: ... superimposed on so many aspects of the social world that a cultural connection is thereby forged between sex and virtually every other aspect of human experience..."
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Polygendered and Ponytailed: The Dilemma of Femininity and the Female Athlete, 2009, Women's Press, Dayna B. Daniels, Gender polarization, Retrieved August 22, 2014, (see page 29) "...Gender polarization can be defined as the organizing principle upon which many cultures and their social institutions have been created...
  9. Shakespeare: A Wayward Journey, Susan Snyder, Rosemont Publishing, 2002, Mamillius and Gender Polarization in the Winter's Tale page 210+
  10. Gender and Families, Scott Coltrane, Michele Adams, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2008, Engendering Children (chapter), Retrieved August 22, 2014, (page 183+) "...Gender polarization organizes the daily lives of children from the moment they are born: pink vs. blue to dolls vs. trucks...."
  11. Sex Differences and Similarities in Communication, edited by Kathryn Dindia, Daniel J. Canary, chapter by A. Elizabeth Lindsey and Walter R. Zakahi, Perceptions of Men and Women Departing from the Conventional Sex-Role, Retrieved August 22, 2014, (see page 273+) "...Initiation to gender polarization begins early in life. ..."
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  13. Bem, S. (1995). Dismantling Gender Polarization and Compulsory Heterosexuality: Should We Turn the Volume Down or Up?. Journal of Sex Research, 32(4), 329-334.
  14. Forden, C., Hunter, A.E., & Birns, B. (1999). The longest war: gender and culture. Readings in the psychology of women. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
  15. Wienclaw, Ruth (2011). "GENDER ROLES & EQUALITY" (PDF). Sociology Reference Guide: 33–41 via Ethernet.
  16. Katz, Marilyn (1992). "Ideology and "The Status of Women" in Ancient Greece". History and Theory. 31 (4): 70–97. doi:10.2307/2505416. ISSN   0018-2656. JSTOR   2505416.
  17. Tinagli, Paola (1997-06-15). Women in Italian Renaissance Art: Gender, Representation and Identity. Manchester University Press. ISBN   978-0-7190-4054-2.
  18. Dublin, Thomas (1994). Transforming Women's Work: New England Lives in the Industrial Revolution. Cornell University Press. ISBN   978-0-8014-8090-4.
  19. DuBois, Ellen Carol (August 1998). Woman Suffrage and Women's Rights. NYU Press. ISBN   978-0-8147-1900-8.
  20. Cummings, Vicki; Jordan, Peter; Zvelebil, Marek (2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-gatherers. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-955122-4.
  21. Bem, Sandra Lipsitz (1995). "Dismantling Gender Polarization and Compulsory Heterosexuality: Should We Turn the Volume down or up?". The Journal of Sex Research. 32 (4): 329–334. doi:10.1080/00224499509551806. ISSN   0022-4499. JSTOR   3813357.
  22. Shields, Stephanie A. (2008-09-01). "Gender: An Intersectionality Perspective". Sex Roles. 59 (5): 301–311. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9501-8. ISSN   1573-2762.