A person doing geometry homeworkChildren preparing homework on the street, Tel Aviv, 1954
Homework is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed at home. Common homework assignments may include required reading, a writing or typing project, mathematical exercises to be completed, information to be reviewed before a test, or other skills to be practiced.
The benefits of homework are debated. Generally speaking, homework does not improve academic performance among young children. Homework may improve academic skills among older students, especially lower-achieving students. It is also believed it creates stress on students and parents, and reduces the amount of time that students can spend in other important activities. Hence, emphasis should be not on how long students spend on the homework but on what they gain through the practice. It can be useful to help students develop their self-regulation skills. [1]
Cultivating self-regulation skills is vital for individuals to become lifelong learners and sustain their growth over time. While developing these skills may require dedication and patience, the long-term benefits can make it worthwhile to some.[2]
Purposes
A child completing her homework
The basic objectives of assigning homework to students often align with schooling in general. However, assigning homework serves multiple purposes for teachers, which include:[3][4][5]
Homework research dates back to the early 1900s. However, no consensus exists on the general effectiveness on homework.[6] Results of homework studies vary based on multiple factors, such as the age group of those studied and the measure of academic performance.[7]
Younger students who spend more time on homework generally have slightly worse, or the same academic performance, as those who spend less time on homework.[8] Homework has not been shown to improve academic achievements for grade school students. Proponents claim that assigning homework to young children helps them learn good study habits. No research has ever been conducted to determine whether this claim has any merit.[9]
Among teenagers, students who spend more time on homework generally have higher grades, and higher test scores than students who spend less time on homework.[8] Large amounts of homework cause students' academic performance to worsen, even among older students.[8] Students who are assigned homework in middle and high school score somewhat better on standardized tests, but the students who have more than 90 minutes of homework a day in middle school or more than two hours in high school score worse.[10]
Low-achieving students receive more benefit from doing homework than high-achieving students.[11] However, school teachers commonly assign less homework to the students who need it most, and more homework to the students who are performing well.[11] In past centuries, homework was a cause of academic failure: when school attendance was optional, students would drop out of school entirely if they were unable to keep up with the homework assigned.[12]
Non-academic
The amount of homework given does not necessarily affect students' attitudes towards homework and various other aspects of school.[7]
Epstein (1988) found a near-zero correlation between the amount of homework and parents' reports on how well their elementary school students behaved. Vazsonyi & Pickering (2003) studied 809 adolescents in American high schools, and found that, using the Normative Deviance Scale as a model for deviance, the correlation was r = 0.28 for white students, and r = 0.24 for African-American students. For all three of the correlations, higher values represent a higher correlation between time spent on homework and poor conduct.[13]
Bempechat (2004) says that homework develops students' motivation and study skills. In a single study, parents and teachers of middle school students believed that homework improved students' study skills and personal responsibility skills.[14] Their students were more likely to have negative perceptions about homework and were less likely to ascribe the development of such skills to homework.[14]Leone & Richards (1989) found that students generally had negative emotions when completing homework and reduced engagement compared to other activities.
Busy work
Homework should not be merely given to occupy student's time.
The intention of homework is to further test students' knowledge at home. However, there is a line between productive work and busy work. Busy work has no inherent value; it just occupies time. Karin Chenoweth provides an example of a student taking chemistry who must color a mole for homework.[15] Chenoweth shared how busy work like this can have a negative effect on students, and explained that having this simple drawing is of no worth in terms of learning, yet it lowered the student's grade in class. However, Miriam Ferzli et. al. point out that just because an assignment is time consuming does not give students the right to call an assignment "busy work," which can be seen in the case of lab reports, which are indeed time consuming but which are also key to learning.[16]
One way to promote productive learning starts in the classroom and then seeps into the homework.[17] Brian Cook and Andrea Babon point to the difference between active and passive learning, noting that active learning promotes engagement and "a deeper approach to learning that enables students to develop meaning from knowledge." Cook and Babon discuss the use of weekly quizzes, which are based on the course readings and which test each student's understanding at the end of each week. Weekly quizzes engage not only students, but also teachers, who must look at what is commonly missed, review students' answers, and clear up any misunderstandings.[17]
Sarah Greenwald and Judy Holdener discuss the rise of online homework and report that "online homework can increase student engagement, and students generally appreciate the immediate feedback offered by online homework systems as well as the ability to have multiple attempts after an incorrect solution."[18] Greenwald and Holdener state that after creating effective homework assignments, teachers must also implement the learning from that homework.[19] Greenwald and Holdener point to a teacher who uses a two-step homework process of connecting homework to classroom learning by first assigning homework followed by in-class presentations. The teacher says using class time for following up on homework gives that connection to what is learned in the class, noting, "In the initial step students complete and submit (traditional) homework assignments electronically, and then later they revisit their work through presentations of selected problems during class.[20]
Tanzanian student doing her homework in a school bus before getting home
Health and daily life
Homework has been identified in numerous studies and articles as a dominant or significant source of stress and anxiety for students.[21] Studies on the relation between homework and health are few compared to studies on academic performance.[22][23]
Cheung & Leung-Ngai (1992) surveyed 1,983 students in Hong Kong, and found that homework led not only to added stress and anxiety, but also physical symptoms, such as headaches and stomachaches. Students in the survey who were ridiculed or punished by parents and peers had a higher incidence of depression symptoms, with 2.2% of students reporting that they "always" had suicidal thoughts, and anxiety was exacerbated by punishments and criticism of students by teachers for both problems with homework as well as forgetting to hand in homework.
A 2007 study of American students by MetLife found that 89% of students felt stressed from homework, with 34% reporting that they "often" or "very often" felt stressed from homework. Stress was especially evident among high school students. Students that reported stress from homework were more likely to be deprived of sleep.[24]
Homework can cause tension and conflict in the home as well as at school, and can reduce students' family and leisure time. In the Cheung & Leung-Ngai (1992) survey, failure to complete homework and low grades where homework was a contributing factor was correlated with greater conflict; some students have reported teachers and parents frequently criticizing their work. In the MetLife study, high school students reported spending more time completing homework than performing home tasks.[25]Kohn (2006) argued that homework can create family conflict and reduce students' quality of life. The authors of Sallee & Rigler (2008), both high school English teachers, reported that their homework disrupted their students' extracurricular activities and responsibilities. However, Kiewra et al. (2009) found that parents were less likely to report homework as a distraction from their children's activities and responsibilities. Galloway, Conner & Pope (2013) recommended further empirical study relating to this aspect due to the difference between student and parent observations.
A 2019 Pew Research Center review of Bureau of Labor Statistics' American Time Use Survey data reported that 15-, 16-, and 17-year-olds Americans, spent on average an hour a day on homework during the school year. The change in this demographic's average daily time spent doing homework (during the school year) increased by about 16 minutes from 2003-2006 to 2014-2017. U.S. teenage girls spent more time doing homework than U.S. teenage boys.[27]
A 2019 nationally representative survey of 95,505 freshmen at U.S. colleges, conducted by the UCLA Higher Education Research Institute, asked respondents, "During your last year in high school, how much time did you spend during a typical week studying/doing homework?" 1.9% of respondents said none, 7.4% said less than one hour, 19.5% said 1–2 hours, 27.9% said 3–5 hours, 21.4% said 6–10 hours, 11.4% said 11–15 hours, 6.0% said 16–20 hours, 4.5% said over 20 hours.[28]
Galloway, Conner & Pope (2013) surveyed 4,317 students from ten "privileged, high-performing" high schools in the U.S., and found that students reported spending more than 3 hours on homework daily. 72% of the students reported stress from homework, and 82% reported physical symptoms. The students slept an average of 6 hours 48 minutes, lower than recommendations prescribed by various health agencies.
Homework in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Spain
Homework has been in practice across cultures and societies for over a century. For decades the practice and acceptance of homework as an important part of schooling have also been in question by the arguments that run in the field of education both in its favor or against bouncing back and forth throughout. It was in the late 1900s, that a lot of researchers started writing books and publishing articles presenting their arguments and urging for reforms.[1] Given the extensive scope of the history and practices of homework in various countries, including a comprehensive analysis within this article is not feasible. Therefore, it tried to providing insights into the context of homework in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Spain.
United States
Historically, homework was frowned upon in American culture. With few students able to pursue higher education, and with many children and teenagers needing to dedicate significant amounts of time to chores and farm work, homework was disliked not only by parents, but also by some schools. The students' inability to keep up with the homework, which was largely memorizing an assigned text at home, contributed to students dropping out of school at a relatively early age. Attending school was not legally required, and if the student could not spend afternoons and evenings working on homework, then the student could quit school.[12]
Complaints from parents were common at all levels of society.[12] In 1880, Francis Amasa Walker convinced the school board in Boston to prohibit teachers from assigning math homework under normal circumstances.[12] In 1900, journalist Edward Bok railed against schools assigning homework to students until age 15.[12] He encouraged parents to send notes to their children's teachers to demand the end of all homework assignments, and thousands of parents did so.[12] Others looked at the new child labor laws in the United States and noted that school time plus homework exceeded the number of hours that a child would be permitted to work for pay.[12] The campaign resulted in the US Congress receiving testimony to the effect that experts thought children should never have any homework, and that teenagers should be limited to a maximum of two hours of homework per day.[12] In 1901, the California legislature passed an act that effectively abolished homework for anyone under the age of 15.[12] While homework was generally out of favor in the first half of the 20th century, some people supported homework reform, such as by making the assignments more relevant to the students' non-school lives, rather than prohibiting it.[12]
In the 1950s, with increasing pressure on the United States to stay ahead in the Cold War, homework made a resurgence, and children were encouraged to keep up with their Russian counterparts.[12] From that time on, social attitudes have oscillated approximately on a 15-year cycle: homework was encouraged in the 1950s to mid-1960s; it was rejected from the mid-1960s until 1980; it was encouraged again from 1980 and the publication of A Nation at Risk until the mid-1990s, when the Cold War ended.[12] At that time, American schools were overwhelmingly in favor of issuing some homework to students of all grade levels.[29] Homework was less favored after the end of the Cold War.[12][30]The debate has since persisted, with numerous books and articles being published on the advantages and disadvantages of homework concerning student learning.[30]
United Kingdom
British students get more homework than many other countries in Europe. The weekly average for the subject is 5 hours. The main distinction for UK homework is the social gap, with middle-class teenagers getting a disproportionate amount of homework compared to Asia and Europe.[31]
Spain
In 2012, a report by the OECD showed that Spanish children spend 6.4 hours a week on homework. This prompted the CEAPA, representing 12,000 Spanish parent associations, to call for a homework strike.[32]
Benefits
Some educators argue that homework is beneficial to students, as it enhances learning, develops the skills taught in class, and lets educators verify that students comprehend their lessons.[33] Proponents also argue that homework makes it more likely that students will develop and maintain proper study habits that they can use throughout their educational career.[33]
Criticisms
Homework can take up a large portion of a student's free time and lead to stress, despair, anger, and sleep disorders among children, as well as arguments among families.
Homework and its effects, justifications, motivations and alleged benefits have been the subject of sharp criticism among many education experts and researchers.
Criticism of repetitive tasks, rote learning, and memorization created concerns about students' overall health and well-being. This belief gained momentum, particularly in primary schools, leading to calls for the abolition of homework.[34] Parents also joined the movement, asserting that their children were being deprived of play, relaxation, and quality time due to the burden of excessive homework. They also believed the quality of time with their children has been seriously affected by the too much work given as homework.[35][36]
According to a study by the Dresden University of Technology, homework—described in the study as "an educational ritual"—has little to no influence on academic performance.[37]
When assigning homework, each student is usually given the same exercises, regardless of how well the student is performing. This leaves some students under-challenged and others overwhelmed by their homework.[37][38] For others, the degree of difficulty of homework may be appropriate, but students are unable to decide for themselves whether they need to deepen their knowledge in a particular subject or whether to use the time in other subjects with which they experience more difficulty, despite the fact that homework is often seen as a way of encouraging self-regulation.[39]
Homework is sometimes used to outsource school material not completed in class to the home, leaving children with homework that is not designed to be done on their own and parents feeling helpless and frustrated.[40] As a consequence, students often have to use the internet or other resources for help, which provides disadvantages for students without internet access. Thus, such homework fails to promote equality of opportunity.[41][42] Homework without professional feedback from the teacher has little effect on the learning success of students.[43]
Even if it is generally not wanted by homework distributors (unless homework is given as a punishment), completing homework may take up a large part of the student's free time. It is often the case that children try to finish their homework until late at night, which can lead to sleep disorders and unhealthy stress.[40] Children may feel overwhelmed when they have too much homework, which can negatively affect children's natural curiosity and thirst for knowledge.[44]
A study by the UCL Institute of Education, which concerned the impact of homework in different countries, discovered that the pressure associated with homework causes arguments among family members.[45] The study also showed that homework can lead to anxiety, depression, and emotional exhaustion among children.[45]
A collaboration effort between schools, teachers, and parents plays a crucial role in creating a positive homework environment. Experts recommend that schools and educators actively involve parents in their children's homework by seeking their direct and indirect input and establishing open lines of communication that invite parental engagement. This can create a supportive and conducive homework atmosphere for their students.[46]
Current trends and practices
How can we make homework more meaningful? It is a question that always need a careful conversation among all stakeholders.
There has been extensive consideration and discussion on how to redefine the purpose of homework to make it more meaningful for students. However, breaking away from old beliefs and practices that simply assumed completing homework tasks would enhance student motivation, academic achievement, and behavior control required significant effort and time. It was seen as a paradigm shift to rethink homework practice and ensure it catered to the needs of diverse learners.[47] This shift called for teachers to adopt a more comprehensive approach to developing homework and assignments and incorporate them into their teaching. Despite the challenges teachers may encounter, the current belief is that the primary objective of homework is to facilitate student learning while they work on it. Homework should encourage students to actively engage in their learning, articulate their thought processes, and develop or suggest strategies when they encounter difficulties in problem-solving.[48]
Current conversations on the topic suggest the quality of homework matters more than the amount of time spent on it.[47][49] Fostering a positive attitude and maintaining a healthy balance in all grade levels needs continuous effort from all stakeholders to bring the desired ultimate change in student learning.[47][49]
↑ Chenowith, Karin. "Homework vs. Busywork: Tales from Home and a Request for More." The Washington Post, Feb 13 2003.
↑ Ferzli, Miriam, Michael Carter, and Eric Wiebe. "Transforming Lab Reports from Busy Work to Meaningful Learning Opportunities." LabWrite. Journal of College Science Teaching, November/ December, 2005.
1 2 Cook, Brian Robert and Andrea Babon. "Active Learning Through Online Quizzes: Better Learning and Less (busy) Work." Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 41,1. 2017. 24–38.
↑ Greenwald, Sarah J. and Judy A. Holdener. "The Creation and Implementation of Effective Homework Assignments (Part 1): Creation." PRIMUS, 29(1): 1–8, 2019.
↑ Greenwald, Sarah J. and Judy A. Holdener. "The Creation and Implementation of Effective Homework Assignments (Part 2): Implementation." PRIMUS, 29(2): 103–110, 2019
↑ Greenwald, Sarah J. and Judy A. Holdener. "The Creation and Implementation of Effective Homework Assignments (Part 2): Implementation." PRIMUS, 29(2): 103–110, 2019
↑ Ellen Bara Stolzenberg et al., The American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2019, Higher Education Research Institute, Graduate School of Education & Information Studies at the University of California, Los Angeles, p. 42.
↑ "History of Homework". The San Francisco Chronicle. 1999-12-20. Archived from the original on 2013-03-23. Retrieved 2007-03-24.
Cooper, Harris; Robinson, Jorgianne C.; Patall, Erika A. (2006). "Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987-2003". Review of Educational Research. 76 (1): 1–62. doi:10.3102/00346543076001001. S2CID146452256.
Epstein, Joyce L. (1988), "Homework practices, achievements, and behaviors of elementary school students", Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools
Trautwein, Ulrich; Köller, Olaf (2003). "The Relationship Between Homework and Achievement—Still Much of a Mystery". Educational Psychology Review. 15 (2): 115–145. doi:10.1023/A:1023460414243. S2CID142739222.
Vazsonyi, Alexander T.; Pickering, Lloyd E. (2003). "The Importance of Family and School Domains in Adolescent Deviance: African American and Caucasian Youth". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 32 (2): 115–128. doi:10.1023/A:1021857801554. S2CID142600541.
Homework and non-academic effects
Bauwens, Jeanne; Hourcade, Jack J. (1992). "School-Based Sources of Stress Among Elementary and Secondary At-Risk Students". The School Counselor. 40 (2): 97–102.
Bempechat, Janine (2004). "The Motivational Benefits of Homework: A Social-Cognitive Perspective". Theory in Practice. 43 (3): 189–196. doi:10.1353/tip.2004.0029.
Kouzma, Nadya M.; Kennedy, Gerard A. (2002). "Homework, stress, and mood disturbance in senior high school students". Psychological Reports. 91 (1): 193–198. doi:10.2466/pr0.2002.91.1.193. PMID12353781. S2CID19342704.
Leone, Carla M.; Richards, H. (1989). "Classwork and homework in early adolescence: The ecology of achievement". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 18 (6): 531–548. doi:10.1007/BF02139072. PMID24272124. S2CID508824.
Sallee, Buffy; Rigler, Neil (2008). "Doing Our Homework on Homework: How Does Homework Help?". The English Journal. 98 (2): 46–51. doi:10.58680/ej20086828.
West, Charles K.; Wood, Edward S. (1970). "Academic Pressures on Public School Students". Educational Leadership. 3 (4): 585–589.
Xu, Jianzhong; Yuan, Ruiping (2003). "Doing homework: Listening to students', parents', and teachers' voices in one urban middle school community". School Community Journal. 13 (2): 25–44. CiteSeerX10.1.1.471.2773.
Ystgaard, M. (1997). "Life stress, social support and psychological distress in late adolescence". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 32 (5): 277–283. doi:10.1007/BF00789040. PMID9257518. S2CID22716723.
Duke Study: Homework Helps Students Succeed in School, As Long as There Isn't Too Much
The Case Against Homework: How Homework Is Hurting Our Children and What We Can Do About It by Sarah Bennett & Nancy Kalish (2006) Discusses in detail assessments of studies on homework and the authors' own research and assessment of the homework situation in the United States. Has specific recommendations and sample letters to be used in negotiating a reduced homework load for your child.
Closing the Book on Homework: Enhancing Public Education and Freeing Family Time by John Buell (2004)
The Battle Over Homework: Common Ground for Administrators, Teachers, and Parents by Harris CooperArchived 2012-07-23 at the Wayback Machine (2007)
The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing by Alfie Kohn (2006)
The End of Homework: How Homework Disrupts families, Overburdens Children, and Limits Learning by Etta Kralovec and John Buell (2000)
Homeschooling or home schooling, also known as home education or elective home education (EHE), is the education of school-aged children at home or a variety of places other than a school. Usually conducted by a parent, tutor, or online teacher, many homeschool families use less formal, more personalized and individualized methods of learning that are not always found in schools. The actual practice of homeschooling varies considerably. The spectrum ranges from highly structured forms based on traditional school lessons to more open, free forms such as unschooling, which is a lesson- and curriculum-free implementation of homeschooling. Some families who initially attended a school go through a deschool phase to break away from school habits and prepare for homeschooling. While "homeschooling" is the term commonly used in North America, "home education" is primarily used in Europe and many Commonwealth countries. Homeschooling should not be confused with distance education, which generally refers to the arrangement where the student is educated by and conforms to the requirements of an online school, rather than being educated independently and unrestrictedly by their parents or by themselves.
Tutoring is private academic help, usually provided by an expert teacher; someone with deep knowledge or defined expertise in a particular subject or set of subjects.
Special education is the practice of educating students in a way that accommodates their individual differences, disabilities, and special needs. This involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help individuals with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and in their community, which may not be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.
Recess is a general term for a period in which a group of people are temporarily dismissed from their duties.
A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or "learning trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students. There may be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal, how the goal will be reached and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached.
Anti-schooling activism, or radical education reform, describes positions that are critical of school as a learning institution and/or compulsory schooling laws; or multiple attempts and approaches to fundamentally change the school system. People of this movement usually advocate alternatives to the traditional school system, education independent from school, the absence of the concept of schooling as a whole, or the right that people can choose how, where and with whom they are educated.
Education in Jamaica is primarily modeled on the British education system.
After-school activities, also known as after-school programs or after-school care, started in the early 1900s mainly just as supervision of students after the final school bell. Today, after-school programs do much more. There is a focus on helping students with school work but can be beneficial to students in other ways. An after-school program, today, will not limit its focus on academics but with a holistic sense of helping the student population. An after-school activity is any organized program that youth or adult learner voluntary can participate in outside of the traditional school day. Some programs are run by a primary or secondary school, while others are run by externally funded non-profit or commercial organizations. After-school youth programs can occur inside a school building or elsewhere in the community, for instance at a community center, church, library, or park. After-school activities are a cornerstone of concerted cultivation, which is a style of parenting that emphasizes children gaining leadership experience and social skills through participating in organized activities. Such children are believed by proponents to be more successful in later life, while others consider too many activities to indicate overparenting. While some research has shown that structured after-school programs can lead to better test scores, improved homework completion, and higher grades, further research has questioned the effectiveness of after-school programs at improving youth outcomes such as externalizing behavior and school attendance. Additionally, certain activities or programs have made strides in closing the achievement gap, or the gap in academic performance between white students and students of color as measured by standardized tests. Though the existence of after-school activities is relatively universal, different countries implement after-school activities differently, causing after-school activities to vary on a global scale.
Garden-based learning (GBL) encompasses programs, activities and projects in which the garden is the foundation for integrated learning, in and across disciplines, through active, engaging, real-world experiences that have personal meaning for children, youth, adults and communities in an informal outside learning setting. Garden-based learning is an instructional strategy that utilizes the garden as a teaching tool.
Online communication between home and school is the use of digital telecommunication to convey information and ideas between teachers, students, parents, and school administrators. As the use of e-mail and the internet becomes even more widespread, these tools become more valuable and useful in education for the purposes of increasing learning for students, and facilitating conversations between students, parents, and schools.
Differentiated instruction and assessment, also known as differentiated learning or, in education, simply, differentiation, is a framework or philosophy for effective teaching that involves providing all students within their diverse classroom community of learners a range of different avenues for understanding new information in terms of: acquiring content; processing, constructing, or making sense of ideas; and developing teaching materials and assessment measures so that all students within a classroom can learn effectively, regardless of differences in their ability. Differentiated instruction means using different tools, content, and due process in order to successfully reach all individuals. Differentiated instruction, according to Carol Ann Tomlinson, is the process of "ensuring that what a student learns, how he or she learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he or she has learned is a match for that student's readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning." According to Boelens et al. (2018), differentiation can be on two different levels: the administration level and the classroom level. The administration level takes the socioeconomic status and gender of students into consideration. At the classroom level, differentiation revolves around content, processing, product, and effects. On the content level, teachers adapt what they are teaching to meet the needs of students. This can mean making content more challenging or simplified for students based on their levels. The process of learning can be differentiated as well. Teachers may choose to teach individually at a time, assign problems to small groups, partners or the whole group depending on the needs of the students. By differentiating product, teachers decide how students will present what they have learned. This may take the form of videos, graphic organizers, photo presentations, writing, and oral presentations. All these take place in a safe classroom environment where students feel respected and valued—effects.
The gradual release of responsibility (GRR) model is a structured method of pedagogy centred on devolving responsibility within the learning process from the teacher to the learner. This approach requires the teacher to initially take on all the responsibility for a task, transitioning in stages to the students assuming full independence in carrying it out. The goal is to cultivate confident learners and thinkers who are capable of handling tasks even in areas where they have not yet gained expertise.
Jon (Jonathan) Bergmann is a chemistry teacher and one of the developers of the "flipped classroom" model of teaching along with fellow chemistry teacher Aaron Sams. Although already noted for his teaching, Bergmann decided to "flip" what students did in his classes, watching video lectures at home and doing exercises (homework) in class under supervision. He and Sams not only found that grades went up, they also found time for other types of activities, which Bergmann states is more important than the videos. Bergmann has since become the lead technology facilitator for a school in Illinois, and has worked to promote the models speaking at schools, universities and more both in the United States and abroad. He currently teaches science at a high school in suburban Houston Texas.
A homework coach is a category of tutor whose mission is to help a student's overall academic success. A parent might hire a homework coach when their child is struggling in school because of problems with study skills, organization, executive function skills and motivation. The goal of the coach is to teach the child to become a successful student by providing the student with the skills to plan assignments, organize materials, manage time effectively and, in the case of an ADHD student, learn ways to manage the symptoms of their attention deficit disorder. As such, the role of a homework coach is similar to ADHD coaching but is focused specifically on success in school. Some providers use the term "homework helper" as well as "homework coach."
The homework gap is the difficulty students experience completing homework when they lack internet access at home, compared to those who have access. According to a Pew Research Center analysis of the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey data from 2013, there were approximately 5 million households with school-age children in the United States that lacked access to high-speed Internet service. Low-income households and minority households made up a “disproportionate” share of those 5 million households; 31.4% of households with school-age children whose incomes fell below $50,000 fell into the group without internet access at home. According to Pew, this group makes up about 40% of all families with school-age children in the United States.
Inclusive Classroom is a term used within American pedagogy to describe a classroom in which all students, irrespective of their abilities or skills, are welcomed holistically. It is built on the notion that being in a non-segregated classroom will better prepare special-needs students for later life. In the United States, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 guaranteed civil rights to disabled people, though inclusion of disabled students progressed slowly until the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, after which almost half of US students with disabilities were soon in general classrooms.
In 2020, school systems in the United States began to close down in March because of the spread of COVID-19. This was a historic event in the history of the United States schooling system because it forced schools to shut-down. At the very peak of school closures, COVID-19 affected 55.1 million students in 124,000 public and private U.S. schools. The effects of widespread school shut-downs were felt nationwide, and aggravated several social inequalities in gender, technology, educational achievement, and mental health.
Disengagement compact is the name assigned by educator George Kuh in 1991 to the tacit agreement between college teachers and their students that if teachers will minimize academic demands and grade generously, students for their part will write favorable course reviews and will allow teachers undisturbed time to focus on the research and publishing that their institutions reward with promotions and tenure. Commentators in the United States and Canada attribute the disengagement compact to market forces acting since the 1960s. The disengagement compact has been most discussed — and lamented — by educators convinced that engagement with teachers builds student competence in critical thinking, analytical reasoning, problem solving, and writing. Kuh maintains that the disengagement compact diminishes not only the skills acquisitions closely associated with academic learning but also the students' personal growth that teachers historically had helped to advance by engaging with students outside the classroom as well as inside. Beginning in 2000, educator and author Murray Sperber brought the disengagement compact to the attention of the general reading public, emphasizing its upsurge in large research universities.
The Double Reduction Policy is an attempt by China to reduce homework and after-school tutoring pressure on primary and secondary school students, reduce families' spending on expensive tutoring, and improve compulsory education.
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