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Denmark imports but does not produce nuclear energy, which is in accordance with a 1985 law passed by the Danish parliament, prohibiting power production from nuclear energy in Denmark. [1] [2] [3] In 2014 and 2015, (imported) nuclear power was 3-4% of electricity consumption in Denmark. [4]
Denmark was something of a latecomer to the nuclear field, due to American and British reluctance to allow Denmark’s most prominent scientist, Niels Bohr, to divulge the knowledge he gained during the Manhattan project, for reasons of nation security [5] . Niels was acutely aware of this fact, and as the rest of the scientific establishment followed his lead at the time, very little progress was made up until the early 1950s. Following the 1953 “Atoms for Peace” speech, a relaxation in this tight control occurred.
In the mid-1950s, a sort of euphoric mood surrounded nuclear energy in most countries, with the same being experienced in Denmark. After a US sponsored campaign from the US Information Service called Atomet i Hverdagen (‘The Atom in Everyday Life’) in 1955, a majority of Danes thought atomic energy will be "more of a boon than a curse to mankind" [5] . In December 1955, Denmark established the permanent Atomenergikommissionen (Atomic Energy Commission, AEK), which commissioned the Risø Research Centre in 1957, with Bohr as its chairman. Its purpose was to pursue research into this new energy source. The insitute attempted to develop its own reactor design (organic liquid cooled, heavy water moderated) called the DOR (Deuterium Organic Reactor), but failed to convince the Danish utilities to support it. Later attempts to partner with Sweden to develop a heavy water reactor also failed, due to a lack of collaboration and economic viablility.
The 1973 oil crisis brought the development of nuclear power in Denmark back into public focus. Concerned about the safety of nuclear power plants, their economics and the wider threat to world peace posed by nuclear technology [6] , the Organisationen til Oplysning om Atomkraft (Organisation for Nuclear Information, OOA) was founded in the same year. They advocated for greater use of coal, natural and bio-gas, and more focus on the development of wind and solar technology, along with energy-saving measures. Part of their campaign was the creation of the "Smiling Sun" anti-nuclear symbol, which has since been used around the world. The campaign was highly successful, with extensive marches and pamphlet deliveries [7] . Denmark banned the generation of electricity from nuclear reactors in 1985.
Instead of building nuclear power, Denmark converted oil plants to coal and built new coal power plants so efficiently that for a number of years Denmark was the world's second largest importer of coal (11-12 million tons per year). [8] The past decades, Denmark has focused on renewable energy sources such as wind energy to reduce the country's dependence on coal power. In 2007, about 11.4 TWh of electricity was exported and 10.4 TWh imported. Import from Sweden amounted 5 TWh, from Norway 3.9 TWh, and from Germany 1.5 TWh. Both Sweden and Germany have a portion of nuclear energy in their power production. [1]
Beginning in 2003, three nuclear research reactors at the former Risø National Laboratory have been shut down, [2] and are in the process of being dismantled. The reactors were named DR-1, DR-2 and DR-3, and had the following properties: [9]
| Name | Reactor type | Thermal power | Operating years | Decommissioned |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| DR1 | Homogenous reactor | 2 kW | 1957–2001 | 2003–2006 |
| DR2 | Pool reactor | 5 MW | 1958–1975 | since 2003 |
| DR3 | DIDO | 10 MW | 1960–2000 | since 2003 |
The issue of introducing nuclear power in Denmark has, however, gained new flare-up since 2019, when COP-19 and the state of the climate showed that there is a global need for new or other energy sources that do not emit the same large amounts of CO2 and other greenhouse gases as fossil fuels. The movement "Atomkraft, ja tak" has grown in membership and has received a lot of media coverage. [source missing] In August 2023, a Gallup poll showed that 55% of Denmark's population is positive for nuclear power compared to 26% against. [10] The Technical University of Denmark reintroduced Danish research into nuclear power in 2024. [11]
In 2015, two Danish companies Seaborg Technologies and Copenhagen Atomics were established. Both are private companies that work on the development of so-called molten salt reactors (MSR), [12] [13] where the fissile fuel is mixed in the molten salt, and have a significantly lower output effect than the conventional, commercially available nuclear power reactors. They are therefore smaller in size, and in both cases will be of modular construction (Small Modular Reactors (SMR)).
In March 2024 Danish Minister of Climate, Energy and Utilities, Lars Aagaard, announced that test reactors may be built in Denmark, provided that they do not produce electricity. [14]
The electricity sector in Norway relies predominantly on hydroelectricity. A significant share of the total electrical production is consumed by national industry.
Japan is a major consumer of energy, ranking fifth in the world by primary energy use. Fossil fuels accounted for 88% of Japan's primary energy in 2019. Japan imports most of its energy due to scarce domestic resources. As of 2022, the country imports 97% of its oil and is the larger LNG importer globally.
Energy in the United Kingdom came mostly from fossil fuels in 2021. Total energy consumption in the United Kingdom was 142.0 million tonnes of oil equivalent in 2019. In 2014, the UK had an energy consumption per capita of 2.78 tonnes of oil equivalent compared to a world average of 1.92 tonnes of oil equivalent. Demand for electricity in 2023 was 29.6 GW on average, supplied through 235 TWh of UK-based generation and 24 TWh of energy imports.
Denmark has considerable sources of oil and natural gas in the North Sea and ranked as number 32 in the world among net exporters of crude oil in 2008. Denmark expects to be self-sufficient with oil until 2050. However, gas resources are expected to decline, and production may decline below consumption in 2020, making imports necessary. Denmark imports around 12% of its energy.
Nordic electricity market is a common market for electricity in the Nordic countries. It is one of the first free electric-energy markets in Europe and is traded in NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe and Nord Pool Spot. In 2003, the largest market shares were as follows: Vattenfall 17%, Fortum 14.1%, Statkraft 8.9%, E.on 7.5%, Elsam 5%, Pohjolan Voima 5%. Other producers had 42.5% market share.
Energy in Finland describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Finland. Energy policy of Finland describes the politics of Finland related to energy. Electricity sector in Finland is the main article regarding electricity in Finland.
Majority of electricity production in Sweden relies on hydro power and nuclear power. In 2008 the consumption of electricity in Sweden was 16018 kWh per capita, compared to EU average 7409 kWh per capita. Sweden has a national grid, which is part of the Synchronous grid of Northern Europe. A specialty of the Nordic energy market is the existence of so-called electricity price areas, which complicate the wholesale Nordic energy market.
The Nuclear Power? No Thanks logo, also known as the Smiling Sun, is an international symbol of the anti-nuclear movement. The logo has been present worldwide since the late 1970s and the 1980s. BBC News reported in 2005 that few symbols had become "as instantly recognizable across the world", and even the nuclear power industry had recognized the logo's "power and success." Over 20 million Smiling Sun badges have been produced in over 60 languages, such as Danish, Korean, Swedish, English, Arabic, Hebrew, Norwegian, and Russian. In recent years the logo has been playing a prominent role once again to raise awareness and funding for anti-nuclear groups, especially in Germany, Austria and Switzerland where opposition is growing to plans for extending the operation of old nuclear reactors and constructing new ones.
Denmark's western electrical grid is part of the Synchronous grid of Continental Europe whereas the eastern part is connected to the Synchronous grid of Northern Europe via Sweden.
The electricity sector in France is dominated by its nuclear power, which accounted for 71.7% of total production in 2018, while renewables and fossil fuels accounted for 21.3% and 7.1%, respectively. France has the largest share of nuclear electricity in the world, and together with renewable energy supplies, this has helped its grid achieve very low carbon intensity.
Russia is the fourth largest generator and consumer of electricity in the world. Its 440 power stations have a combined installed generation capacity of 220 GW.
The electric power industry in Japan covers the generation, transmission, distribution, and sale of electric energy in Japan. Japan consumed approximately 918 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity in 2014. Before the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, about a quarter of electricity in the country was generated by nuclear power. In the following years, most nuclear power plants have been on hold, being replaced mostly by coal and natural gas. Solar power is a growing source of electricity, and Japan has the third largest solar installed capacity with about 50 GW as of 2017. Japan's electricity production is characterized by a diverse energy mix, including nuclear, fossil fuels, renewable energy, and hydroelectric power.
The total electricity consumption of the Netherlands in 2021 was 117 terawatt-hours (TWh). The consumption grew from 7 TWh in 1950 by an average of 4.5% per year. In 2021, fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal, accounted for around 62% of the total electricity produced. Renewable energy sources, such as biomass, wind power, and solar power, produce 38% of the total electricity. One nuclear plant in the Netherlands, in Borssele, is responsible for around 3% of total generation. The majority of the electricity, more than 75%, is produced centrally by thermal and nuclear units.
Nuclear energy is used in Slovenia for a number of civilian purposes including electricity production, medicine, and research.
Electricity production in Belgium reached 87.9 terawatt-hours (TWh) in 2020, with nuclear power (39%), natural gas (30%), and wind (15%) as the primary sources. Additional contributions came from biofuels and waste (7%), solar (6%), and coal (2%). In the same year, the total electricity demand was 80.9 TWh, with consumption predominantly from the industrial sector (50%), followed by commercial (25%), residential (23%), and transport (2%) sectors.
Energy in Luxembourg describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Luxembourg. Energy policy of Luxembourg will describe the politics of Luxembourg related to energy in greater detail. Electricity sector in Luxembourg is the main article of electricity in Luxembourg.
Primary energy use in Slovakia was 194 TWh and 36 TWh per million inhabitants in 2009.
Total primary energy supply (TPES) in Slovenia was 6.80 Mtoe in 2019. In the same year, electricity production was 16.1 TWh, consumption was 14.9 TWh.
This is a history of nuclear power as realized through the first artificial fission of atoms that would lead to the Manhattan Project and, eventually, to using nuclear fission to generate electricity.
Seaborg Technologies is a private Danish startup. It is developing small molten salt reactors. Founded in 2015 and based in Copenhagen, Denmark, Seaborg emerged as a small team of physicists, chemists, and engineers with educational roots at the Niels Bohr Institute, CERN, ESS and DTU who share a common vision of safe, sustainable and cheap nuclear power.
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