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The economy of Peru is an upper middle income economy as classified by the World Bank and is the 47th largest in the world by total GDP. Peru was one of the world's fastest-growing economies in 2012, with a GDP growth rate of 6.3%. As of 2018 the GDP growth rate has slowed to 3.99%. It currently has a high human development index of 0.741 and per capita GDP above $12,000 by PPP.
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Coca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to western South America. Coca is known for its psychoactive alkaloid, cocaine.
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The balloon effect is an often-cited criticism of United States drug policy. The name draws an analogy between efforts to eradicate the production of illegal drugs in South American countries and the phenomenon of the same name when a latex balloon is squeezed: The air is moved, but does not disappear, instead moving into another area of less resistance.
A drug policy is the policy, usually of a government, regarding the control and regulation of psychoactive substances, particularly those that are addictive or cause physical and mental dependence. Governments try to combat drug addiction or dependence with policies that address both the demand and supply of drugs, as well as policies that mitigate the harms of drug use, and for medical treatment. Demand reduction measures include voluntary treatment, rehabilitation, substitution therapy, overdose management, alternatives to incarceration for drug related minor offenses, medical prescription of drugs, awareness campaigns, community social services, and support for families. Supply side reduction involves measures such as enacting foreign policy aimed at eradicating the international cultivation of plants used to make drugs and interception of drug trafficking, fines for drug offenses, incarceration for persons convicted for drug offenses. Policies that help mitigate drug use include needle syringe programs and drug substitution programs, and free facilities for testing a drug's purity.
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Leslie Michael Bethell is an English historian and university professor, who specialises in the study of 19th- and 20th-century Latin America, focusing on Brazil in particular. He received both his Bachelor of Arts and Doctorate in History at the University of London. He is Emeritus Professor of Latin American History, University of London and Emeritus Fellow of St Antony's College, University of Oxford. Bethell has served as Visiting Professor at the University Research Institute of Rio de Janeiro, the University of California, San Diego, the University of Chicago, the Fundação Getulio Vargas in Rio de Janeiro, the University of São Paulo and most recently the Brazil Institute, King's College London from 2011 to 2017. He has been associated with the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars for many years, most recently as Senior Scholar of the Brazil Institute from 2010 to 2015. He was a Fellow of St Antony's College and founding director of the Centre for Brazilian Studies at the University of Oxford from 1997 to 2007. He was Lecturer, Reader and Professor of Latin American History in the University of London from 1966 to 1992 and Director of the University of London Institute of Latin American Studies from 1987 to 1992.
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Latin America as a region has multiple nation-states, with varying levels of economic complexity. The Latin American economy is an export-based economy consisting of individual countries in the geographical regions of North America, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. The socioeconomic patterns of what is now called Latin America were set in the colonial era when the region was controlled by the Spanish and Portuguese empires. Up until independence in the early nineteenth century, colonial Latin American regional economies thrived and worked things out. Many parts of the region had favorable factor endowments of deposits of precious metals, mainly silver, or tropical climatic conditions and locations near coasts that allowed for the development of cane sugar plantations. In the nineteenth century following independence, many economies of Latin America declined. In the late nineteenth century, much of Latin America was integrated into the world economy as an exporter of commodities. Foreign capital investment, construction of infrastructure, such as railroads, growth in the labor sector with immigration from abroad, strengthening of institutions, and expansion of education aided industrial growth and economic expansion. A number of regions have thriving economies, but "poverty and inequality have been deeply rooted in Latin American societies since the early colonial era."
Organized crime in Peru refers to the transnational, national, and local groupings of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals who engage in illegal activity in the country, including drug trafficking organizations, terrorism, and attempted murder.
The environmental history of Latin America has become the focus of a number of scholars, starting in the later years of the twentieth century. But historians earlier than that recognized that the environment played a major role in the region's history. Environmental history more generally has developed as a specialized, yet broad and diverse field. According to one assessment of the field, scholars have mainly been concerned with "three categories of research: colonialism, capitalism, and conservation" and the analysis focuses on narratives of environmental decline. There are several currents within the field. One examines humans within particular ecosystems; another concerns humans’ cultural relationship with nature; and environmental politics and policy. General topics that scholars examine are forestry and deforestation; rural landscapes, especially agro-export industries and ranching; conservation of the environment through protected zones, such as parks and preserves; water issues including irrigation, drought, flooding and its control through dams, urban water supply, use, and waste water. The field often classifies research by geographically, temporally, and thematically. Much of the environmental history of Latin America focuses on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but there is a growing body of research on the first three centuries (1500-1800) of European impact. As the field established itself as a more defined academic pursuit, the journal Environmental History was founded in 1996, as a joint venture of the Forest History Society and the American Society for Environmental History (ASEH). The Latin American and Caribbean Society for Environmental History (SOLCHA) formed in 2004. Standard reference works for Latin American now include a section on environmental history.
References
- ↑ "Paul Gootenberg". State University of New York at Stony Brook website. Archived from the original on May 7, 2011. Retrieved May 6, 2011.
- 1 2 3 Gootenberg, Paul (June 26, 2009). "Cocaine's first full-length biography". Rorotoko. Archived from the original on May 8, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
- ↑ "Fellows Finder - Paul Gootenberg". John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
- ↑ "Initiative for Historical Social Sciences". State University of New York, Stony Brook website. Archived from the original on May 8, 2011. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
- ↑ Drinot, Paolo (2009). "Review: Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug". Social History. 35 (3): 341–342. JSTOR 27866666.
- ↑ Uribe-Uran, Victor M. (October 2009). "Political Economy & Globalization". The Americas. 66 (2): 299–301. doi:10.1353/tam.0.0199. ProQuest 209593362.
- ↑ Bauer, Arnold J. (Winter 2008). "Tracking Cocaine" (PDF). A Contracorriente. 7 (2): 370–375. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2016.
- ↑ Carey, Elaine (April 2011). "Cocaine's Rise and Fall: A New Global History". H-net Reviews. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
