Russell Fernald

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Russell D. Fernald is an American neuroscientist/neuroethologist, currently on the Biology faculty at Stanford University. Fernald is known for his interdisciplinary work based on fieldwork and subsequent neuroethological analysis of an African cichlid fish that he has shown to be a useful and novel model organism. His research spans several domains: 1) in the visual system including the discovery of rod photoreceptor stem cells, circadian renewal of photoreceptor opsins and mechanisms of crystalline lens focus (Rank Prize); 2) In social control of reproductive behavior: social regulation of reproduction via gonadotropin releasing hormones through specific brain circuitry; 3) Cognitive skills that have evolved to regulate social status. [1]

Contents

Early life

Russ Fernald was born in Chuquicamata, Chile to American parents, Catherine and Russell G. Fernald where his father was a mining engineer, working at the Anaconda Company open pit mine.[ citation needed ]

Fernald returned to the U.S. when he was ~3 and grew up in a western suburb of Chicago where he attended public schools. He was attracted to biology by foraging in local swamps and was one of a handful of his high school classmates who went to college.[ citation needed ]

Career

Fernald attended Swarthmore College where he received his B.S. in Electrical Engineering in 1963. He then completed his Ph.D. in Biophysics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1968 where he worked with Professor George Gerstein. He was supported by the Ford Foundation and studied the neurobiology of the cat cochlear nucleus using single cell recording and modeling the data. In 1969, he moved to Munich, Germany where he worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the Max-Planck für Psychiatrie in Munich with Dr. O. Creutzfeldt, until 1971. In this position, together with Ronald Chase, he developed a novel technique for aligning and focusing the eyes of experimental animals. [2] In 1971 Fernald moved to the Max-Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology where he worked with Nobel Laureate, Dr. Konrad Lorenz in Seewiesen, Germany. His research was on quantitative behavioral analyses of bird and fish behavior and he began African field work on cichlid fish during that time. [3] [4] [5] He then returned to the US where he joined the faculty of the University of Oregon (1976–1990), rising through the ranks to full professor and becoming the director of the Neuroscience Institute. During this time, he was an NIH Fogarty Senior International Fellow at the Medical Research Council in London (1985–86). In 1990, Fernald moved to Stanford where he has since held numerous titles and received several awards, including a Hilgard Visiting Professor, 1987–88; Professor of Psychology, 1990–2004, Professor of Biology, Stanford University 2004-; Benjamin Scott Crocker Professor, Stanford University, 2004-; Javits Investigator Award, NINDS 1999–2006; Bing Prize for Innovation in Undergraduate teaching, 1996–1999; Cox Medal for Fostering Undergraduate Research, 1998; Dinkelspiel Prize for Outstanding Contributions to Undergraduate Education, 2000; Bass University Fellow in Undergraduate Education, 2003–2013.[ citation needed ]

He was awarded the Rank Prize in Vision/Opto-electronics, 2004; Elected, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2011 and presented numerous named lectures including the Futterman Memorial Lecture, University of Washington, 2009; Forbes Lectures, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, 2011; Marsden Lecture, McGill University, Montreal, 2013; Matarazzo Lecture, Oregon Health Sciences Institute, Portland, 2013. He has served as Executive Editor, Experimental Eye Research, 1991–2000; Editorial Board, Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 1998–2007; Advisory Board, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, 2008–2015; Advisory Board, Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt, 2011–present; Reviewing Editor, e-Life, 2012–present.[ citation needed ]

Research

In early work, Fernald asked how fish maintain excellent visual acuity despite rapid eye growth. He showed eyes grow through expansion and cell addition at the eye's margins but that rod photoreceptors arise from precursor stem cells. [6] [7] Fernald next asked how fish lens quality was preserved during growth, identifying specific mechanisms, sharing the Rank Prize for the discovery. [8] [9] Fernald also showed that retinal opsin production was regulated via a circadian rhythm, since shown to be the case in all vertebrates. [10] Fernald also did research on eye evolution, showing that photoreceptor proteins have an ancient origin predating vision while lens proteins have arisen many times from different sources in different animal lineages. [11] [12]

In his research on the control of reproduction, Fernald's research showed neurons containing gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) changed size in response to an animal's social status [13] [14] [15] and his group were the first to find the gene encoding (GnRH) in cold-blooded vertebrates. [16] [17] He also found a previously unknown second GnRH gene in humans and other primates. [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] To be effective, GnRH must be delivered in a pulsatile fashion, yet no known mechanism synchronized the firing of these neurons, but Fernald recently showed this results from their connection via gap junctions. [23]

In his research, Fernald collected definitive evidence that social behavior can change the brain, including regulation of numerous receptors, identifying a social calculus used during behavioral interactions. [24] [25] [26] [27] He identified an attention hierarchy in fish that maintains social systems [28] and more recently that fish can construct a logical linear hierarchy from paired observations to perform transitive inference just as do primates, thereby identifying cognitive skills required for social systems across vertebrates. [29] [30] Using the CRISPR technique, his group has shown that a single gene controls reproduction in the cichlid fish. [31] [32] He has published several review articles describing the search for the social brain. [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] among his 220 papers and book chapters.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cichlid</span> Family of fishes

Cichlids are fish from the family Cichlidae in the order Cichliformes. Traditionally Cichlids were classed in a suborder, the Labroidei, along with the wrasses (Labridae), in the order Perciformes, but molecular studies have contradicted this grouping. On the basis of fossil evidence, it first appeared in Tanzania during the Eocene epoch, about 46–45 million years ago; however, molecular clock estimates have placed the family's origin as far back as 67 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous period. The closest living relative of cichlids is probably the convict blenny, and both families are classified in the 5th edition of Fishes of the World as the two families in the Cichliformes, part of the subseries Ovalentaria. This family is large, diverse, and widely dispersed. At least 1,650 species have been scientifically described, making it one of the largest vertebrate families. New species are discovered annually, and many species remain undescribed. The actual number of species is therefore unknown, with estimates varying between 2,000 and 3,000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Luteinizing hormone</span> Gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis

Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by gonadotropic cells in the anterior pituitary gland. The production of LH is regulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. In females, an acute rise of LH known as an LH surge, triggers ovulation and development of the corpus luteum. In males, where LH had also been called interstitial cell–stimulating hormone (ICSH), it stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone. It acts synergistically with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gonadotropin-releasing hormone</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a releasing hormone responsible for the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary. GnRH is a tropic peptide hormone synthesized and released from GnRH neurons within the hypothalamus. The peptide belongs to gonadotropin-releasing hormone family. It constitutes the initial step in the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis.

In medicine, precocious puberty is puberty occurring at an unusually early age. In most cases, the process is normal in every aspect except the unusually early age and simply represents a variation of normal development. There is early development of secondary sex characters and gametogenesis also starts earlier. Precocious puberty is of two types: true precocious puberty and pseudoprecocious puberty. In a minority of children with precocious puberty, the early development is triggered by a disease such as a tumor or injury of the brain.

Gonadotropins are glycoprotein hormones secreted by gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary of vertebrates. This family includes the mammalian hormones follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), the placental/chorionic gonadotropins, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG), as well as at least two forms of fish gonadotropins. These hormones are central to the complex endocrine system that regulates normal growth, sexual development, and reproductive function. LH and FSH are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, while hCG and eCG are secreted by the placenta in pregnant humans and mares, respectively. The gonadotropins act on the gonads, controlling gamete and sex hormone production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis</span> Concept of regarding the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and gonadal glands as a single entity

The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis refers to the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonadal glands as if these individual endocrine glands were a single entity. Because these glands often act in concert, physiologists and endocrinologists find it convenient and descriptive to speak of them as a single system.

GnRH2, also known as gonadotropin-releasing hormone II or LHRH-II. Its gene is located on human chromosome 20.

The gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRHR), also known as the luteinizing hormone releasing hormone receptor (LHRHR), is a member of the seven-transmembrane, G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family. It is the receptor of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). The GnRHR is expressed on the surface of pituitary gonadotrope cells as well as lymphocytes, breast, ovary, and prostate.

The periventricular nucleus is a thin sheet of small neurons located in the wall of the third ventricle, a composite structure of the hypothalamus. It functions in analgesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kisspeptin</span> Mammalian protein

Kisspeptins are proteins encoded by the KISS1 gene in humans. Kisspeptins are ligands of the G-protein coupled receptor, GPR54. Kiss1 was originally identified as a human metastasis suppressor gene that has the ability to suppress melanoma and breast cancer metastasis. Kisspeptin-GPR54 signaling has an important role in initiating secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) at puberty, the extent of which is an area of ongoing research. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is released from the hypothalamus to act on the anterior pituitary triggering the release of luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). These gonadotropic hormones lead to sexual maturation and gametogenesis. Disrupting GPR54 signaling can cause hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism in rodents and humans. The Kiss1 gene is located on chromosome 1. It is transcribed in the brain, adrenal gland, and pancreas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GNRHR</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GNRHR gene.

<i>Astatotilapia burtoni</i> Species of fish

Astatotilapia burtoni is a species of fish in the family Cichlidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">KiSS1-derived peptide receptor</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

The KiSS1-derived peptide receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor which binds the peptide hormone kisspeptin (metastin). Kisspeptin is encoded by the metastasis suppressor gene KISS1, which is expressed in a variety of endocrine and gonadal tissues. Activation of the kisspeptin receptor is linked to the phospholipase C and inositol trisphosphate second messenger cascades inside the cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GPR37</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Probable G-protein coupled receptor 37 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GPR37 gene. GPR37 is primarily found in the central nervous system (CNS), with significant expression observed in various CNS regions including the amygdala, basal ganglia, substantia nigra, hippocampus, frontal cortex, and hypothalamus, particularly noteworthy is its exceptionally elevated expression in the spinal cord.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GNRHR2</span> Pseudogene in the species Homo sapiens

Putative gonadotropin-releasing hormone II receptor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GNRHR2 gene.

Progonadoliberin-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GNRH2 gene.

Stuart C. Sealfon is an American neurologist who studies the mechanisms of both the therapeutic and adverse effects of drugs. He was an early adopter of the use of massively parallel qPCR and fluorescent in situ hybridization to characterize cell response state and his research accomplishments have included the identification of the primary structure of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor, finding new signaling pathways activated by drugs for Parkinson's disease, elucidating the mechanism of action of hallucinogens and finding a new brain receptor complex implicated in schizophrenia as a novel target for antipsychotics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GnRH neuron</span> Cell type

GnRH neurons, or gonadotropin-releasing hormone expressing neurons, are the cells in the brain that control the release of reproductive hormones from the pituitary. These brain cells control reproduction by secreting GnRH into the hypophyseal portal capillary bloodstream, so are sometimes referred to as “sex neurons”. This small capillary network carries GnRH to the anterior pituitary, causing release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) into the wider bloodstream. When GnRH neurons change their pattern of release from the juvenile to the adult pattern of GnRH secretion, puberty is initiated. Failure of GnRH neurons to form the proper connections, or failure to successfully stimulate the pituitary with GnRH, means that puberty is not initiated. These disruptions to the GnRH system cause reproductive disorders like hypogonadotropic hypogonadism or Kallmann Syndrome.

Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) is a RFamide-related peptide coded by the NPVF gene in mammals.

Stephanie Ann White is an American neuroscientist who is a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. Her research looks to understand how social interactions impact the brain. She serves as Director of the Neural Systems and Behavior programme at the Marine Biological Laboratory.

References

  1. ↑ Angier, Natalie (1991-11-12). "In Fish, Social Status Goes Right to the Brain". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2023-03-03.
  2. ↑ Fernald, R; Chase, R (1971). "An improved method for plotting retinal landmarks and focusing the eyes". Vision Research. 11 (1): 95–6. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(71)90207-0. PMID   5575857.
  3. ↑ Fernald, Russell D. (1977). "Quantitative behavioural observations of Haplochromis burtoni under semi-natural conditions". Animal Behaviour. 25: 643–53. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(77)90115-4. S2CID   53203090.
  4. ↑ Fernald, Russell D.; Hirata, Nancy R. (1977). "Field study of Haplochromis burtoni: Habitats and co-habitant". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 2 (3): 299–308. Bibcode:1977EnvBF...2..299F. doi:10.1007/BF00005997. S2CID   19076616.
  5. ↑ Fernald, Russell D.; Hirata, Nancy R. (1977). "Field study of Haplochromis burtoni: Quantitative behavioural observations". Animal Behaviour. 25: 964–75. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(77)90048-3. S2CID   53164983.
  6. ↑ Fernald, R. D. (1981). "Chromatic organization of a cichlid fish retina". Vision Research. 21 (12): 1749–53. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(81)90207-8. PMID   7336611. S2CID   8117557.
  7. ↑ Johns, Pamela Raymond; Fernald, Russell D. (1981). "Genesis of rods in teleost fish retina". Nature. 293 (5828): 141–2. Bibcode:1981Natur.293..141J. doi:10.1038/293141a0. PMID   7266666. S2CID   4248188.
  8. ↑ Fernald, Russell D.; Wright, Stephen E. (1983). "Maintenance of optical quality during crystalline lens growth". Nature. 301 (5901): 618–20. Bibcode:1983Natur.301..618F. doi:10.1038/301618a0. PMID   6828142. S2CID   4344824.
  9. ↑ Kröger, R. H.; Campbell, M. C.; Munger, R; Fernald, R. D. (1994). "Refractive index distribution and spherical aberration in the crystalline lens of the African cichlid fish Haplochromis burtoni". Vision Research. 34 (14): 1815–22. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(94)90306-9. PMID   7941384. S2CID   6272668.
  10. ↑ Korenbrot, Juan I.; Fernald, Russell D. (1989). "Circadian rhythm and light regulate opsin mRNA in rod photoreceptors". Nature. 337 (6206): 454–7. Bibcode:1989Natur.337..454K. doi:10.1038/337454a0. PMID   2521689. S2CID   1740859.
  11. ↑ Land, M F; Fernald, R D (1992). "The Evolution of Eyes". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 15: 1–29. doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.15.030192.000245. PMID   1575438.
  12. ↑ Fernald, R. D. (2006). "Casting a Genetic Light on the Evolution of Eyes". Science. 313 (5795): 1914–8. Bibcode:2006Sci...313.1914F. doi:10.1126/science.1127889. PMID   17008522. S2CID   84439732.
  13. ↑ Davis, Mark R.; Fernald, Russell D. (1990). "Social control of neuronal soma size". Journal of Neurobiology. 21 (8): 1180–8. doi:10.1002/neu.480210804. PMID   2273399.
  14. ↑ Francis, R. C.; Soma, K; Fernald, R. D. (1993). "Social regulation of the brain-pituitary-gonadal axis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (16): 7794–8. Bibcode:1993PNAS...90.7794F. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.16.7794 . PMC   47229 . PMID   8356086.
  15. ↑ Francis, Richard C.; Jacobson, Ben; Wingfield, John C.; Fernald, Russell D. (1992). "Hypertrophy of gonadotropin releasing hormone-containing neurons after castration in the teleost,Haplochromis burtoni". Journal of Neurobiology. 23 (8): 1084–93. doi:10.1002/neu.480230812. PMID   1460466.
  16. ↑ Bond, Chris T.; Francis, Richard C.; Fernald, Russell D.; Adelman, John P. (1991). "Characterization of Complementary DNA Encoding the Precursor for Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone and Its Associated Peptide from a Teleost Fish". Molecular Endocrinology. 5 (7): 931–7. doi: 10.1210/mend-5-7-931 . PMID   1944299.
  17. ↑ Powell, J. F.; Fischer, W. H.; Park, M; Craig, A. G.; Rivier, J. E.; White, S. A.; Francis, R. C.; Fernald, R. D.; Licht, P; Warby, C (1995). "Primary structure of solitary form of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in cichlid pituitary; three forms of GnRH in brain of cichlid and pumpkinseed fish". Regulatory Peptides. 57 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1016/0167-0115(95)00014-3. PMID   7644702. S2CID   27109447.
  18. ↑ White, S. A.; Bond, C. T.; Francis, R. C.; Kasten, T. L.; Fernald, R. D.; Adelman, J. P. (1994). "A second gene for gonadotropin-releasing hormone: CDNA and expression pattern in the brain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (4): 1423–7. Bibcode:1994PNAS...91.1423W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.4.1423 . PMC   43171 . PMID   8108425.
  19. ↑ White, S. A.; Kasten, T. L.; Bond, C. T.; Adelman, J. P.; Fernald, R. D. (1995). "Three gonadotropin-releasing hormone genes in one organism suggest novel roles for an ancient peptide". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 92 (18): 8363–7. Bibcode:1995PNAS...92.8363W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.18.8363 . PMC   41157 . PMID   7667296.
  20. ↑ Kasten, Thomas L.; White, Stephanie A.; Norton, Thomas T.; Bond, Chris T.; Adelman, John P.; Fernald, Russell D. (1996). "Characterization of Two New preproGnRH mRNAs in the Tree Shrew: First Direct Evidence for Mesencephalic GnRH Gene Expression in a Placental Mammal". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 104 (1): 7–19. doi: 10.1006/gcen.1996.0135 . PMID   8921350. S2CID   25408661.
  21. ↑ White, R. B.; Eisen, J. A.; Kasten, T. L.; Fernald, R. D. (1998). "Second gene for gonadotropin-releasing hormone in humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (1): 305–9. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95..305W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.1.305 . PMC   18209 . PMID   9419371.
  22. ↑ White, Richard B.; Fernald, Russell D. (1998). "Genomic Structure and Expression Sites of Three Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Genes in One Species". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 112 (1): 17–25. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.591.9219 . doi:10.1006/gcen.1998.7125. PMID   9748399.
  23. ↑ Ma, Yunyong; Juntti, Scott A.; Hu, Caroline K.; Huguenard, John R.; Fernald, Russell D. (2015). "Electrical synapses connect a network of gonadotropin releasing hormone neurons in a cichlid fish". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (12): 3805–10. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.3805M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1421851112 . PMC   4378424 . PMID   25775522.
  24. ↑ Angier, Natalie (12 November 1991). "In Fish, Social Status Goes Right to the Brain". The New York Times.
  25. ↑ Ganguli, Ishani. "Getting on Top, Genetically." Genome Biology. BioMed Central, 19 Oct. 2005. Web. https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gb-spotlight-20051019-01
  26. ↑ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. "Social Interactions Can Alter Gene Expression In Brain, And Vice Versa." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 7 November 2008. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081106153538.htm
  27. ↑ Burmeister, Sabrina S; Jarvis, Erich D; Fernald, Russell D (2005). "Rapid Behavioral and Genomic Responses to Social Opportunity". PLOS Biology. 3 (11): e363. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030363 . PMC   1255743 . PMID   16216088.
  28. ↑ Desjardins, Julie K.; Hofmann, Hans A.; Fernald, Russell D. (2012). "Social Context Influences Aggressive and Courtship Behavior in a Cichlid Fish". PLOS ONE. 7 (7): e32781. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...732781D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032781 . PMC   3395714 . PMID   22807996.
  29. ↑ Grosenick, Logan; Clement, Tricia S.; Fernald, Russell D. (2007). "Fish can infer social rank by observation alone". Nature. 445 (7126): 429–32. Bibcode:2007Natur.445..429G. doi:10.1038/nature05511. PMID   17251980. S2CID   4412652.
  30. ↑ "The Enemy within: Male Fish Dislike Their Reflections More Than Competitors". Wired.
  31. ↑ Juntti, Scott A.; Hilliard, Austin T.; Kent, Kai R.; Kumar, Anusha; Nguyen, Andrew; Jimenez, Mariana A.; Loveland, Jasmine L.; Mourrain, Philippe; Fernald, Russell D. (2016). "A Neural Basis for Control of Cichlid Female Reproductive Behavior by Prostaglandin F 2α". Current Biology. 26 (7): 943–9. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.067. PMC   4821738 . PMID   26996507.
  32. ↑ "Stanford scientists identify genetic switch for female sexual behavior". 18 March 2016.
  33. ↑ Insel, Thomas R.; Fernald, Russell D. (2004). "How the brain processes social information: searching for the social brain". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 27: 697–722. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144148. PMID   15217348.
  34. ↑ Fernald, R. D. (2006). "Investigator Profile: An Interview with Russell D. Fernald, Ph.D". Zebrafish. 3 (2): 119–25. doi:10.1089/zeb.2006.3.119. PMID   18248254.
  35. ↑ Robinson, G. E.; Fernald, R. D.; Clayton, D. F. (2008). "Genes and Social Behavior". Science. 322 (5903): 896–900. Bibcode:2008Sci...322..896R. doi:10.1126/science.1159277. PMC   3052688 . PMID   18988841.
  36. ↑ Fernald, Russell D. (2012). "Social Control of the Brain". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 35: 133–51. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150520. PMID   22524786.
  37. ↑ Fernald, Russell D. (2014). "Cognitive Skills Needed for Social Hierarchies". Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. 79: 229–36. doi:10.1101/sqb.2014.79.024752. PMC   5501702 . PMID   25746062.
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