Sultan of Egypt

Painting from 1779 of a councilor to the Sultan of Egypt during Mamluk rule.

Sultan of Egypt was the status held by the rulers of Egypt after the establishment of the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin in 1174 until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517. Though the extent of the Egyptian Sultanate ebbed and flowed, it generally included Sham and Hejaz, with the consequence that the Ayyubid and later Mamluk sultans were also regarded as the Sultans of Syria. From 1914, the title was once again used by the heads of the Muhammad Ali dynasty of Egypt and Sudan, later being replaced by the title of King of Egypt and Sudan in 1922.

Ayyubid dynasty

Main article: Ayyubid dynasty

Prior to the rise of Saladin, Egypt was the center of the Shia Fatimid Caliphate, the only period in Islamic history when a caliphate was ruled by members of the Shia branch of Islam. The Fatimids had long sought to completely supplant the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate based in Iraq, and like their Abbasid rivals, they also took the title Caliph, representing their claim to the highest status within the Islamic hierarchy. However, with Saladin's rise to power in 1169, Egypt returned to the Sunni fold and the Abbasid Caliphate. Recognizing the Abbasid Caliph as his theoretical superior, Saladin took the title of Sultan in 1174, though from this point until the Ottoman conquest, supreme power in the caliphate would come to rest with the Sultan of Egypt.

Mamluk dynasties

Main article: Mamluk Sultanate

In 1250, the Ayyubids were overthrown by the Mamluks, who established the Bahri dynasty and whose rulers also took the title sultan. Notable Bahri sultans include Qutuz, who defeated the invading Mongol army of Hulagu at the Battle of Ain Jalut, and Baibars, who finally recaptured the last remnants of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Bahri were later overthrown by a rival Mameluke group, who established the Burji dynasty in 1382.

Ottoman Sultanate and autonomous Khedivate

Main articles: Egypt Eyalet and Khedivate of Egypt

Coat of Arms of the Sultan of Egypt (1914–1922)

The Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517 ended the Egyptian Sultanate, with Egypt henceforth a province of the Ottoman Empire. It also marked the end of the Mamluk Abbasid dynasty, as the Ottomans captured the current Caliph Al-Mutawakkil III, and forced him to relinquish the title to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The Ottomans subsequently paid little interest to Egyptian affairs, and the Mamelukes rapidly regained most of their power within Egypt. However, they remained vassals of the Ottoman Sultan and their leaders were limited to the title of Bey.

In 1523, the Ottoman-appointed Turkish governor of Egypt, Hain Ahmed Pasha, declared himself the Sultan of Egypt and Egypt independent from the Ottoman Empire. He struck his own coins to legitimize his rule, but soon thereafter, Ottoman forces under Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha captured him and executed him, with Ibrahim Pasha assuming the governorship until he found a more permanent replacement, Hadım Süleyman Pasha.

Following the defeat of Napoleon I's forces in 1801, Muhammad Ali Pasha seized power, overthrowing the Mamelukes, and declaring himself ruler of Egypt. In 1805, the Ottoman Sultan Selim III reluctantly recognized him as Wāli under Ottoman suzerainty. Muhammad Ali, however, styled himself as Khedive, and though technically a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, governed Egypt as if it were an independent state. Seeking to rival and ultimately supplant the Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad Ali implemented a rapid modernization and militarization program, and expanded Egypt's borders south into Sudan and north into Syria. Eventually, he waged war on the Ottoman Empire with the intention of overthrowing the ruling Osman Dynasty and replacing it with his own. Though the intervention of the Great Powers prevented Muhammad Ali from realizing his grandiose ambitions of becoming sultan himself, obliging Egypt to remain technically part of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt's autonomy survived his death with the Porte recognizing the Muhammad Ali Dynasty as hereditary rulers of the country.

Hussein Kamel, Sultan of Egypt, 1914–1917.

Muhammad Ali's grandson, Ismail I, acceded to the Egyptian throne in 1863 and immediately set about achieving his grandfather's aims, though in a less confrontation manner. A combination of growing Egyptian power, deteriorating Ottoman strength, and outright bribery led to Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz formally recognizing the Egyptian ruler as Khedive in 1867. As Ismail expanded Egypt's borders in Africa, and the Ottoman Empire continued to decay, Ismail believed he was close to realizing formal Egyptian independence, and even contemplated using the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 to declare himself Sultan of Egypt. He was persuaded otherwise by pressure from the Great Powers, who feared the consequences of further disintegration of Ottoman power. Ultimately, Ismail's reign ended in failure, due to the massive debt his ambitious projects had incurred. European and Ottoman pressure forced his removal in 1879 and replacement by his far more pliant son Tewfik. The subsequent Orabi Revolt resulted in Great Britain invading Egypt in 1882 on the invitation of Khedive Tewfik, and beginning its decades long occupation of the country.

Restoration of Egyptian Sultanate

Main article: Sultanate of Egypt

Further information: Kingdom of Egypt

From 1882 onwards, Egypt's status became deeply convoluted: officially a province of the Ottoman Empire, semi-officially a virtually independent state with its own monarchy, armed forces, and territorial possessions in Sudan, and for practical purposes a British puppet. The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty in Egypt was finally ended in 1914 when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in First World War. Alarmed that the anti-British Khedive Abbas II would side with the Ottomans, the British deposed him in favor of his uncle Hussein Kamel and declared Egypt a British protectorate. Symbolizing the official end of Ottoman rule, Hussein Kamel took the title Sultan as did his brother Fuad I who succeeded him in 1917, though in reality Egypt remained under British domination. Both Hussein Kamel and Fuad maintained Egypt's claim to Sudan, with Egyptian nationalists declaring both in turn to be the "Sultan of Egypt and Sudan".

Rising nationalist anger at the continued British occupation forced Britain to formally recognize Egyptian independence, in 1922. However, the title of Sultan was dropped and replaced with King. Nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul, who was later exiled by the British, maintained that this was because the British refused to recognize a sovereign Egyptian ruler who outranked their own king (in the hierarchy of titles, sultan, like shah in Iran, is comparable to emperor, being a sovereign who recognizes no secular superior). Another reason offered for the change in title, is that it reflected the growing secularization of Egypt at the time, as sultan has Islamic overtones, whereas the Arabic word for king, malik , does not.^{[ citation needed ]}

Upon overthrowing Fuad's son, King Farouk I, in the Egyptian revolution of 1952, the Free Officers briefly considered declaring his infant son Sultan to reinforce Egypt's sovereignty over Sudan and demonstrate their rejection of British occupation. However, since the revolutionaries had already decided to abolish the Egyptian monarchy after a brief period of consolidating their hold on power, they determined that it would be an idle gesture and Farouk's son was duly declared King Fuad II. The following year, on 18 June 1953, the revolutionary government officially abolished the monarchy and Egypt became a republic.

List of Sultans

Ayyubid Dynasty

• Saladin (1171–1193)
• Al-Aziz (1193–1198)
• Al-Mansur (1198–1200)
• Al-Adil I (1200–1218)
• Al-Kamil (1218–1238)
• Al-Adil II (1238–1240)
• As-Salih Ayyub (1240–1249)
• Turanshah (1249–1250)
• Shajar al-Durr (1250–1250)
• Al-Ashraf II (1250–1254) (nominally, actually the Mamluk Aybak ruled)

Bahri Dynasty

Salihi Mamluks   Bahri dynasty    Burji dynasty
Number	Royal title	Name	Reign start	Reign end	Ethnicity	Background notes	Coinage
1st	Al-Malik al-Mu'izz	Izz ad-Din Aybak	31 July 1250 [1]	10 April 1257 [2]	Turkmen	Middle-ranking mamluk of Ayyubid sultan as-Salih Ayyub. Married the latter's widow, Shajar ad-Durr, who became sultan on 2 May 1250 until she abdicated in favor of Aybak. [1]
2nd	Al-Malik al-Mansur	Nur ad-Din Ali	15 April 1257 [3]	November 1259 [3]	Turkmen	Son of Aybak.
3rd	Al-Malik al-Muzaffar	Sayf ad-Din Qutuz	November 1259 [3]	24 October 1260 [3]	Khwarazmian Turk [4]	A mamluk of Aybak and head of Aybak's mamluk faction, the Mu'izziya, [5] Aybak's chief deputy, and strongman of Ali's sultanate. [6]
4th	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Rukn ad-Din Baybars	24 October 1260 [3]	1 July 1277 [3]	Kipchak Turk	Bahri mamluk and founder of the Bahri dynasty. [5]
5th	Al-Malik as-Sa'id	Nasir ad-Din Barakah	3 July 1277 [3]	August 1279 [3]	Kipchak Turk	Son of Baybars and his wife, who was the daughter of Husam ad-Din Baraka Khan, a Khwarazmian warrior chief, after whom Barakah was named. [7] [4] [8]
6th	Al-Malik al-Adil	Badr ad-Din Salamish	August 1279 [3]	November 1279 [3]	Kipchak Turk	Son of Baybars.
7th	Al-Malik al-Mansur	Sayf ad-Din Qalawun	November 1279 [3]	10 November 1290 [3]	Kipchak Turk [9]	Bahri mamluk and Baybars' chief deputy
8th	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Salah ad-Din Khalil	12 November 1290 [3]	12 December 1293 [3]	Kipchak Turk	Son of Qalawun.
9th	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Nasir ad-Din Muhammad	14 December 1293 [3]	December 1294 [3]	Kipchak Turk	Son of Qalawun. First reign.
10th	Al-Malik al-Adil	Zayn ad-Din Kitbugha	December 1294 [3]	7 December 1296 [3]	Mongol [10]	A mamluk of Qalawun. [10]
11th	Al-Malik al-Mansur	Husam ad-Din Lajin	7 December 1296 [3]	16 January 1299 [3]	Circassian [11]	A mamluk of Qalawun. [10] Relative to Rukn ad-Din Baybars al-Jashnakir [11]
12th	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Nasir ad-Din Muhammad	16 January 1299 [3]	March 1309 [3]	Kipchak Turk	Second reign.
13th	Al-Malik al-Muzaffar	Rukn ad-Din Baybars al-Jashnakir	April 1309 [3]	5 March 1310 [3]	Circassian [11]	A mamluk of Qalawun. [12] Relative to Husam ad-Din Lajin [11]
14th	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Nasir ad-Din Muhammad	5 March 1310 [3]	6 June 1341 [3]	Kipchak Turk	Third reign.
15th	Al-Malik al-Mansur	Sayf ad-Din Abu Bakr	8 June 1341 [3]	August 1341 [13]	Kipchak Turk	Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his concubine Narjis. [14] Real power in Abu Bakr's sultanate was held by Qawsun, a mamluk and senior emir of an-Nasir Muhammad. [13]
16th	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Ala'a ad-Din Kujuk	August 1341 [15]	21 January 1342 [16]	Kipchak Turk and Tatar	Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his Tatar concubine Ardu. [14] An infant when he was made sultan by strongman Qawsun. [13]
17th	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Shihab ad-Din Ahmad	21 January 1342 [16]	27 June 1342 [17]	Kipchak Turk	Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his concubine Bayad, a freed slave girl. [14]
18th	Al-Malik as-Salih	Imad ad-Din Abu'l Fida Isma'il	27 June 1342 [16]	3 August 1345 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and one of his concubines, unnamed by the sources. [14]
19th	Al-Malik al-Kamil	Sayf ad-Din Sha'ban	3 August 1345 [18]	18 September 1346 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and one of his concubines, unnamed by the sources (same mother of as-Salih Isma'il). [14]
20th	Al-Malik al-Muzaffar	Sayf ad-Din Hajji	18 September 1346 [18]	10 December 1347 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and one of his other unnamed concubines. [14]
21st	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Badr ad-Din Hasan	December 1347	21 August 1351 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his concubine Kuda, who died in Hasan's infancy. First reign. Hasan acceded to the sultanate as a young child and real power was shared by four senior emirs, Shaykhu an-Nasiri, Taz an-Nasiri, Manjak al-Yusufi and Baybugha al-Qasimi. Hasan was toppled when he challenged their power.
22nd	Al-Malik as-Salih	Salah ad-Din Salih	21 August 1351 [18]	20 October 1354 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his wife Qutlumalik, daughter of Emir Tankiz al-Husami. [14]
23rd	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Badr ad-Din Hasan	20 October 1354 [18]	16 March 1361 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Second reign. He was killed by Emir Yalbugha al-Umari. [18]
24th	Al-Malik al-Mansur	Salah ad-Din Muhammad	17 March 1361 [18]	29 May 1363 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of Hajji. Real power was held by Emir Yalbugha al-Umari, who toppled him. [18]
25th	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Zayn ad-Din Sha'ban (Sha'ban II)	29 May 1363 [18]	15 March 1377 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of al-Amjad Husayn (d. 21 January 1363), the last surviving son of an-Nasir Muhammad who never reigned, [19] and Khawand Baraka. [20]
26th	Al-Malik al-Mansur	Ala'a ad-Din Ali	15 March 1377 [18]	19 May 1381 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of Sha'ban II. Was an infant during his accession, and real power was initially held by emirs Ibek and Qartay until the latter was ousted by the former. Ibek was later killed and power passed to Barquq, a former mamluk of Yalbugha an-Nasiri.
27th	Al-Malik as-Salih	Salah ad-Din Hajji	19 May 1381 [18]	26 November 1382 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Son of al-Ashraf Sha'ban. Was an infant during his succession and real power was held by Barquq.

Burji Dynasty

Salihi Mamluks   Bahri dynasty    Burji dynasty
Number	Royal title	Name	Reign start	Reign end	Ethnicity	Background notes	Coinage
28th	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Sayf ad-Din Barquq	26 November 1382 [18]	1 June 1389 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Yalbugha al-Umari. Son of Anas, who was brought to Egypt by Barquq in 1381 and converted to Islam. First reign. Established the Burji dynasty.
29th	Al-Malik as-Salih	Salah ad-Din Hajji	1 June 1389 [18]	January 1390 [18]	Kipchak Turk	Second reign. Installed during a rebellion against Barquq in which the latter was toppled. [18] When Barquq was restored, Hajji was allowed to continue residing in the Cairo Citadel.
30th	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Sayf ad-Din Barquq	21 January 1390 [18]	20 June 1399 [18]	Circassian	Second reign.
31st	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Nasir ad-Din Faraj	20 June 1399 [18]	20 September 1405 [18]	Circassian	Son of Barquq. [18]
32nd	Al-Malik al-Mansur	Izz ad-Din Abd al-Aziz	20 September 1405 [18]	November 1405 [18]	Circassian	Son of Barquq. [18]
33rd	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Nasir ad-Din Faraj	November 1405 [18]	23 May 1412 [18]	Circassian	Second reign.
34th	Al-Malik al-Adil	Al-Musta'in Billah	23 May 1412 [18]	6 November 1412 [18]	Arab	The Abbasid caliph in Cairo. He was appointed by the Burji emir Shaykh Mahmudi as a figurehead, but then compelled him to abdicate. [18]
35th	Al-Malik al-Mu'ayyad	Shaykh al-Mahmudi	6 November 1412 [18]	13 January 1421 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Barquq.
36th	Al-Malik al-Muzaffar	Ahmad	13 January 1421 [18]	29 August 1421 [18]	Circassian	Son of Shaykh. Was an infant during accession.
37th	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Sayf ad-Din Tatar	29 August 1421 [18]	30 November 1421 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Barquq [21]
38th	Al-Malik as-Salih	An-Nasir ad-Din Muhammad	30 November 1421 [18]	1 April 1422 [18]	Circassian	Son of Tatar. Was an infant during accession. [18]
39th	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Sayf ad-Din Barsbay	1 April 1422 [18]	7 June 1438 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Barquq. [21] He was a tutor of Muhammad before he toppled him. [18]
40th	Al-Malik al-Aziz	Jamal ad-Din Abu al-Mahasin Yusuf	7 June 1438 [18]	9 September 1438 [18]	Circassian	Son of Barsbay. Was a child during accession.
41st	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq	9 September 1438 [18]	1 February 1453 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Barquq. [21]
42nd	Al-Malik al-Mansur	Fakhr ad-Din Uthman	1 February 1453 [18]	15 March 1453 [18]	Circassian	Son of Jaqmaq. [18]
43rd	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Sayf ad-Din Inal	15 March 1453 [18]	26 February 1461 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Barquq. [21]
44th	Al-Malik al-Mu'ayyad	Shihab ad-Din Ahmad	26 February 1461 [18]	28 June 1461 [18]	Circassian	Son of Inal. [18]
45th	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Sayf ad-Din Khushqadam	28 June 1461 [18]	9 October 1467 [18]	Greek [18]	A mamluk of Shaykh. [21]
45th	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Sayf ad-Din Bilbay	9 October 1467 [18]	4 December 1467 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Shaykh. [22]
46th	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Timurbugha	4 December 1467 [18]	31 January 1468 [18]	Greek [23]	A mamluk of Jaqmaq. [21]
47th	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Sayf ad-Din Qa'itbay	31 January 1468 [18]	7 August 1496 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Barsbay. [24]
48th	Al-Malik an-Nasir	Muhammad	7 August 1496 [18]	31 October 1498 [18]	Circassian	Son of Qa'itbay [18]
49th	Al-Malik az-Zahir	Abu Sa'id Qansuh	31 October 1498 [18]	30 June 1500 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Qa'itbay. [25]
50th	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Abu al-Nasir Janbalat	30 June 1500 [18]	25 January 1501 [18]	Circassian	Originally a mamluk of Emir Yashbak min Mahdi, who gave Janbalat to Qa'itbay, who then freed him. [26]
51st	Al-Malik al-Adil	Sayf ad-Din Tumanbay	25 January 1501 [18]	20 April 1501 [18]	Circassian	A mamluk of Qa'itbay. [27]
52nd	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Qansuh al-Ghawri	20 April 1501 [18]	24 August 1516 [18]	Circassian	His mamluk origins are unclear, but he was trained in the Ghawr Barracks of Cairo, hence his name "al-Ghawri". [28] Prior to his accession to the sultanate, he was an emir of ten and a provincial governor. [28]
53rd	Al-Malik al-Ashraf	Tumanbay II	17 October 1516 [18]	15 April 1517 [18]	Circassian	Last Mamluk sultan.

Hain Ahmed Pasha's Revolt

• Hain Ahmed Pasha (1523–1524)

Muhammad Ali dynasty (1914–1922)

Further information: Muhammad Ali dynasty

• Hussein Kamel (Sultan of Egypt and Sudan) – 19 December 1914 – 9 October 1917
• Fuad I (Sultan of Egypt and Sudan) – 9 October 1917 – 16 March 1922

References

1. Northrup 1998, p. 69.
2. Northrup 1998, p. 70.
3. Stewart, John (2006). African States and Rulers. McFarland & Company. p. 86. ISBN   9780786425624.
4. Hathaway, Jane (2003). Tale of Two Factions, A: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen. State University of New York Press. pp. 50–52. ISBN   9780791486108.
5. Northrup, ed. Petry 1998, p. 250.
6. Northrup 1998, p. 71.
7. Thorau, Peter (1992). The Lion of Egypt: Sultan Baybars I and the Near East in the Thirteenth Century. Longman. p. 261. ISBN   9780582068230.
8. Holt 2004, p. 99.
9. Yosef 2012b, p. 394. sfn error: no target: CITEREFYosef2012b (help)
10. Northrup, ed. Petry 1998, p. 252.
11. Yosef 2012b, p. 396. sfn error: no target: CITEREFYosef2012b (help)
12. Tarikh, Volumes 5-6: Peoples and Kingdoms of West Africa in the Pre-Colonial Period. Longman. 1974. p. 9. ISBN   9780582608733.
13. Drory 2006, p. 20.
14. Bauden 2009, p. 63.
15. Levanoni 1995, p. 102.
16. Drory 2006, p. 24.
17. Drory 2006, p. 28.
18. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Egypt/3 History"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 09 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–130, see pages 101 to 103. Decline of the Bahri power
19. Holt, eds. Vermeulen and De Smet, p. 319.
20. Al-Harithy, Howayda (2005). "Female Patronage of Mamluk Architecture in Cairo". In Sonbol, Amira El Azhary (ed.). Beyond The Exotic: Women's Histories In Islamic Societies. Syracuse University Press. p. 332. ISBN   9780815630555.
21. Garcin, ed. Petry 1998, p. 293.
22. Levanoni, eds. Winter and Levanoni 2004, p. 82.
23. Ali, Abdul (1996). Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times. M.D. Publications Private Limited. p. 64. ISBN   9788175330085.
24. Garcin, ed. Petry 1998, p. 295.
25. Dobrowolski, Jarosław (2001). The Living Stones of Cairo. American University in Cairo Press. p. 60. ISBN   9789774246326.
26. Mayer, L. A. (1933). Saracenic Heraldry: A Survey. Clarendon Press. p.  127.
27. Garcin, ed. Petry 1998, p. 297.
28. Petry 1994, p. 20.

Regnal titles
Preceded by Caliph	Style of the Egyptian sovereign 1171–1517	Succeeded by Wāli
Preceded by Khedive	Style of the Egyptian sovereign 1914–1922	Succeeded by King of Egypt