The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania is a non-stock, not-for-profit organization[4] headquartered in Warwick, New York. It is the main legal entity used worldwide by Jehovah's Witnesses to direct, administer and disseminate doctrines for the group and is often referred to by members of the denomination simply as "the Society". It is the parent organization of a number of Watch Tower subsidiaries, including the Watchtower Society of New York and International Bible Students Association.[5][6] The number of voting shareholders of the corporation is limited to between 300 and 500 "mature, active and faithful" male Jehovah's Witnesses.[7] About 5,800 Jehovah's Witnesses provide voluntary unpaid labour, as members of a religious order, in three large Watch Tower Society facilities in New York.[8] Nearly 15,000 other members of the order work at the Watch Tower Society's other facilities worldwide.[8][9][10]
The organization was formed in 1881 as Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society for the purpose of distributing religious tracts.[4] The society was incorporated in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on December 15, 1884. In 1896, the society was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.[11] Following a leadership dispute in the Bible Student movement, the society remained associated with the branch of the movement that became known as Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1955, the corporation was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.[12] In 1976, all activities of the Watch Tower Society were brought under the supervision of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.[13]
History
On February 16, 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was formed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, for the purpose of organizing the printing and distribution of religious tracts. William Henry Conley, a Pittsburgh industrialist and philanthropist, served as president, with Charles Taze Russell serving as secretary-treasurer.[14] The society's primary journal was Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, first published in 1879 by Russell,[15] founder of the Bible Student movement.[16] Other early writers for the Watch Tower Society included J. H. Paton and W. I. Mann.[14][17] Formation of the Watch Tower Society was announced in the April 1881 issue of Zion's Watch Tower.[18] That year, the society received donations of $35,391.18.[19]
Incorporation
On December 15, 1884, the society was incorporated as Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in Pennsylvania as a non-profit, non-stock corporation with Russell as president. The corporation was located in Allegheny, Pennsylvania. In its charter, written by Russell, the society's purpose was stated as "the mental, moral and religious improvement of men and women, by teaching the Bible by means of the publication and distribution of Bibles, books, papers, pamphlets and other Bible literature, and by providing oral lectures free for the people".[20] The charter provided for a board of seven directors, three of whom served as officers—a president, vice-president (initially William I. Mann) and secretary-treasurer (initially Maria Russell).[21]
The charter stipulated that the officers be chosen from the directors and be elected annually by ballot. Board members would hold office for life unless removed by a two-thirds vote by shareholders. Vacancies on the board resulting from death, resignation or removal would be filled by a majority vote of the remaining board members within 20 days; if such vacancies were not filled within 30 days an appointment could be made by the president, with the appointments lasting only until the next annual corporation meeting, when vacancies would be filled by election.[21]
Anyone subscribing to $10 or more of the Watch Tower Society's Old Testament Tracts or donating $10 or more to the society was deemed a voting member and entitled to one vote per $10 donated.[21] Russell indicated that despite having a board and shareholders, the society would be directed by only two people—him and his wife Maria.[22] Russell said that as of December 1893 he and his wife owned 3705, or 58 percent, of the 6383 voting shares, "and thus control the Society; and this was fully understood by the directors from the first. Their usefulness, it was understood, would come to the front in the event of our death... For this reason, also, formal elections were not held; because it would be a mere farce, a deception, to call together voting shareholders from all over the world, at great expense, to find upon arrival that their coming was useless, Sister Russell and myself having more than a majority over all that could gather. However, no one was hindered from attending such elections."[23][24]
The influx of donations gradually diluted the proportion of the Russells' shares and in 1908 their voting shares constituted less than half the total.[23][24] Russell emphasized the limitations of the corporation, explaining: "Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society is not a 'religious society' in the ordinary meaning of this term"[25] He also stated, "This is a business association merely... It has no creed or confession. It is merely a business convenience in disseminating the truth."[21] Incorporation of the society meant that it would outlive Russell, so individuals who wished to bequeath their money or property to him would not have to alter their will if he died before they did.[26] On September 19, 1896, the name of the corporation was changed to Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.[27]
From 1908, Russell required the directors to write out resignations when they were appointed so Russell could dismiss them by simply filling in the date.[23] In 1909, Russell instructed legal counsel Joseph Franklin Rutherford to determine whether the Watch Tower Society's headquarters could be moved to Brooklyn, New York.[28] Rutherford reported that because it had been established under Pennsylvania law, the corporation could not be registered in New York state, but suggested that a new corporation be registered there to do the society's work. Rutherford subsequently organized the formation of the People's Pulpit Association, which was incorporated on February 23, 1909, and wrote the charter which gave the president—to be elected for life at the first meeting—"absolute power and control" of its activities in New York.[28][29] The society sold its buildings in Pittsburgh[30] and moved staff to its new base in Brooklyn. Although all New York property was bought in the name of the New York corporation and all legal affairs of the society done in its name, Russell insisted on the continued use of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society name on all correspondence and publications.[28]
The move from Pennsylvania to New York occurred during court proceedings over the breakdown of Russells' marriage. His wife Maria had been granted a "limited divorce" on March 4, 1908, but in 1909 returned to court in Pittsburgh to request an increase in alimony,[31] which her former husband refused.[32] Authors Barbara Grizzuti Harrison and Edmond C. Gruss have claimed Russell's move to Brooklyn was motivated by his desire to transfer from the jurisdiction of the Pennsylvania courts. They claim he transferred all his assets to the Watch Tower Society so he could declare himself bankrupt and avoid being jailed for failure to pay alimony.[31][33][34]
In 1914, the International Bible Students Association was incorporated in Britain to administer affairs in that country. Like the People's Pulpit Association, it was subsidiary to the Pennsylvania parent organization and all work done through both subsidiaries was described as the work of the Watch Tower Society. The Watchtower noted: "The editor of The Watchtower is the President of all three of these Societies. All financial responsibility connected with the work proceeds from [the Pennsylvania corporation]. From it the other Societies and all the branches of the work receive their financial support... we use sometimes the one name and sometimes the other in various parts of our work—yet they all in the end mean the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, to which all donations should be made."[6]
Russell died on October 31, 1916, in Pampa, Texas, during a cross-country preaching trip. On January 6, 1917, board member and Watch Tower Society legal counsel Joseph Franklin Rutherford, aged 47, was elected president of the society, unopposed, at the Pittsburgh convention. Under his presidency, the role of the Watch Tower Society underwent a major change.[35] By-laws passed by both the Pittsburgh convention and the board of directors stated that the president would be the executive officer and general manager of the society, giving him full charge of its affairs worldwide.[36]
By June 1917, four of the seven Watch Tower Society directors, Robert H. Hirsh, Alfred I. Ritchie, Isaac F. Hoskins and James D. Wright, had decided they had erred in endorsing Rutherford's expanded powers of management,[37] claiming Rutherford had become autocratic.[37] Hirsh attempted to rescind the new by-laws and reclaim the powers of management from the president,[38] but Rutherford later claimed he had by then detected a conspiracy among the directors to seize control of the society.[39] In July, Rutherford gained a legal opinion from a Philadelphia corporation lawyer that none of his opposers were legally directors of the society.
On July 12, 1917, Rutherford filled what he claimed were four vacancies on the board, appointing A. H. Macmillan and Pennsylvania Bible Students W. E. Spill, J. A. Bohnet, and George H. Fisher as directors.[40] Between August and November the Watch Tower Society and the four ousted directors published a series of pamphlets, with each side accusing the other of ambitious and reckless behavior. The former directors also claimed Rutherford had required all headquarters workers to sign a petition supporting him and threatened dismissal for any who refused to sign.[41] The former directors left the Brooklyn headquarters on August 8, 1917.[42] On January 5, 1918, Rutherford was returned to office.
In May 1918, Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower Society directors and officers were arrested on charges of sedition under the federal Espionage Act. On June 21, 1918, they were sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. Rutherford feared his opponents would gain control of the society in his absence, but on January 2, 1919, he learned he had been re-elected president at the Pittsburgh convention the day before.[43] However, by mid-1919 about one in seven Bible Students had chosen to leave rather than accept Rutherford's leadership,[44] forming groups such as The Stand Fast Movement, Paul Johnson Movement, Dawn Bible Students Association, Pastoral Bible Institute of Brooklyn, Elijah Voice Movement, and Eagle Society.[45]
Although formed as a "business convenience" with the purpose of publishing and distributing Bible-based literature and managing the funds necessary for that task, the corporation from the 1920s began its transformation into the "religious society" Russell had insisted it was not, introducing centralized control and regulation of Bible Student congregations worldwide.[46] In 1938, Rutherford introduced the term "theocracy" to describe the hierarchical leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses, with Consolation explaining: "The Theocracy is at present administered by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, of which Judge Rutherford is the president and general manager."[47] The society appointed "zone servants" to supervise congregations and in a Watchtower article Rutherford declared the need for congregations to "get in line" with the changed structure.[48][49]
Following Rutherford's death in 1942, Nathan H. Knorr became president of the Watch Tower Society, and subsequently introduced further changes to the role of the society. At a series of talks given in Pittsburgh on September 30, 1944, coinciding with the society's annual meeting, it was announced that changes would be made to the 1884 charter to bring it into "closer harmony with theocratic principles". The amendments, most of which were passed unanimously,[51] significantly altered the terms of membership and stated for the first time that the society's purposes included preaching about God's kingdom, acting as a servant and governing agency of Jehovah's Witnesses, and sending missionaries and teachers for the public worship of God and Jesus Christ. The new charter, which took effect from January 1, 1945, included the following changes:
An altered and expanded explanation of article II, detailing the purpose of the Watch Tower Society. This included the preaching of the gospel of God's kingdom to all nations; to print and distribute Bibles and disseminate Bible truths with literature explaining Bible truths and prophecy concerning the establishment of God's kingdom; to authorise and appoint agents, servants, employees, teachers evangelists, missionaries, ministers and others "to go all the world publicly and from house to house to preach Bible truths to persons willing to listen by leaving with such persons said literature and by conducting Bible studies thereon"; to improve people mentally and morally by instruction "on the Bible and incidental scientific, historical and literary subjects"; to establish and maintain Bible schools and classes; to "teach, train, prepare and equip men and women as ministers, missionaries, evangelists, preachers, teachers and instructors in the Bible and Bible literature, and for public Christian worship of Almighty God and Jesus Christ" and "to arrange for and hold local and worldwide assemblies for such worship".
An amendment to article V, detailing the qualifications for membership of the Watch Tower Society. Each donation of $10 to the society funds had formerly entitled the contributor to one voting share; the amendment limited membership to "only men who are mature, active and faithful witnesses of Jehovah devoting full time to performance of one or more of its chartered purposes... or such men who are devoting part time as active presiding ministers or servants of congregations of Jehovah's witnesses". The amended article stipulated that "a man who is found to be in harmony with the purposes of the Society and who possesses the above qualifications may be elected as a member upon being nominated by a member, director or officer, or upon written application to the president or secretary. Such members shall be elected upon a finding by the Board of Directors that he possesses the necessary qualifications and by receiving a majority vote of the members." The amendment limited membership at any one time to between 300 and 500, including approximately seven residents of each of the 48 states of the US. It also introduced a clause providing for the suspension or expulsion of a member for wilfully violating the society's rules, or "becoming out of harmony with any of the Society's purposes or any of its work or for wilful conduct prejudicial to the best interests of the Society and contrary to his duties as a member, or upon ceasing to be a full-time servant of the Society or a part-time servant of a congregation of Jehovah's witnesses".
An amendment to article VII, dealing with the governance of the Watch Tower Society by its board of directors. The amendment deleted reference to adherence to the constitution and laws of Pennsylvania of the US. It also specified powers of the board, including matters of finance and property.
An amendment to article VIII, detailing the office holders of the Watch Tower Society and the terms of office and method of appointment of officers and directors. A clause stating that board members would hold office for life was deleted. The new clause provided for board membership for a maximum of three years, with directors qualifying for re-election at the expiration of their term.[52]
Governing Body
In 1976, direction of the Watch Tower Society and of the congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide came under the control of the Governing Body, reducing the power of the society's president. The society has described the change as "one of the most significant organizational readjustments in the modern-day history of Jehovah's Witnesses."[53] Since 2000, the role of president of the Watch Tower Society has been held by individuals who are considered "helpers" to the Governing Body.[54]
The corporation is a major publisher of religious publications, including books, tracts, magazines and Bibles. By 1979, the Watch Tower Society had 39 printing branches worldwide. In 1990, it was reported that in one year the society printed 696 million copies of its magazines, The Watchtower and Awake! as well as another 35,811,000 pieces of literature worldwide, which are offered door-to-door by Jehovah's Witnesses.[55] As of 2013, the society prints more than 43 million of its public issues of these magazines each month, totaling over 1 billion annually.
The Watch Tower Society describes its headquarters and branch office staff as volunteers rather than employees,[8] and identifies them as members of the Worldwide Order of Special Full-Time Servants of Jehovah's Witnesses.[9] Workers receive a small monthly stipend[56] with meals and accommodation provided by the society. The "Bethel family" in the Brooklyn headquarters includes hairdressers, dentists, doctors, housekeepers and carpenters, as well as shops for repairing personal appliances, watches, shoes and clothing without charge for labor.[57]
The Watch Tower Society does not file any publicly accessible financial figures, but reported in 2011 that it had spent more than $173 million that year "in caring for special pioneers, missionaries and traveling overseers in their field service assignments".[9][58] Donations obtained from the distribution of literature is a major source of income, most of which is used to promote its evangelical activities.[59]
Author James Beckford has claimed the status of voting members of the Watch Tower Society is purely symbolic. He said they cannot be considered to be representatives of the mass of Jehovah's Witnesses and are in no position to challenge the actions or authority of the society's directors.[60]
Property ownership
United States
The corporation was first located at 44 Federal Street, Allegheny, Pennsylvania (the city was annexed by Pittsburgh in 1907), but in 1889 moved to "Bible House", newly built premises at 56–60 Arch Street, Allegheny, owned by Russell's privately owned Tower Publishing Company. The new building contained an assembly hall seating about 200, as well as editorial, printing and shipping facilities and living quarters for some staff.[61] The title for the building was transferred in April 1898 to the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
In 1909, the Watch Tower Society moved its base to Brooklyn. A four-story brownstone parsonage formerly owned by Congregationalist clergyman and social reformerHenry Ward Beecher at 124 Columbia Heights was converted to a residence for a headquarters staff of 30, as well as an office for Russell. A former Plymouth church building at 13–17 Hicks Street was purchased and converted into the Watch Tower headquarters, with room for 350 staff. It contained an 800-seat assembly hall, shipping department and printing facilities.[62]
The Watch Tower announced: "The new home we shall call 'Bethel,' and the new office and auditorium, 'The Brooklyn Tabernacle'; these names will supplant the term 'Bible House.'"[63] In October 1909, an adjoining building at 122 Columbia Heights was bought.[64] In 1911, a new nine-story residential block was built at the rear of the headquarters, fronting on Furman Street and overlooking the Brooklyn waterfront.[62] The Brooklyn Tabernacle was sold in 1918 or 1919.[65]
Printing facilities were established in Myrtle Street, Brooklyn in 1920. The February 1, 1920, issue of The Watch Tower was printed by the Watch Tower Society at the plant. Two months later the plant began printing The Golden Age. In 1922, the printing factory was moved to a six-story building at 18 Concord Street, Brooklyn. In 1926 it moved to larger premises, a new eight-story building at 117 Adams Street, Brooklyn, at which time the society's headquarters was rebuilt and enlarged. In December 1926, a building at 126 Columbia Heights was bought. A month later the three buildings from 122–126 Columbia Heights were demolished and rebuilt for accommodation and executive offices, using the official address of 124 Columbia Heights.[64]
In 1946, property surrounding the Adams Street factory was bought to expand printing operations. When completed in 1949, the factory occupied an entire block, bounded by Adams, Sands Pearl and Prospect Streets. Five more properties adjoining 124 Columbia Heights were purchased for a 10-story building.[66][67] In the late 1950s a property at 107 Columbia Heights, across the road from 124 Columbia Heights, was bought.[68] In 1960 a residential building for staff was constructed there.[69][70] More residences were built at 119 Columbia Heights in 1969.[70]
The Watchtower detailed further expansion in the 1950s and 1960s: "In 1956, a 13-story building was constructed at 77 Sands Street. Then just across the street, another (10-story building) was purchased in 1958. In 1968, an adjoining 11-story new printing factory was completed. Along with the factory at 117 Adams Street, these fill out four city blocks of factories that are all tied together by overhead bridges. Then in November 1969, the Squibb complex located a few blocks away was purchased."[70]
The Watch Tower Society bought the Towers Hotel at 79–99 Willow Street in 1974 for accommodation,[71] which is connected to the society's other Columbia Heights properties via tunnels.[72] In 1978, a property at 25 Columbia Heights underwent renovation for use as offices.[70] In the early 1980s properties were bought at 175 Pearl Street and 360 Furman Street for factory and office use.[73] A building at 360 Furman Street was bought in March 1983 and renovated, providing almost 9 hectares of floor space[71] for shipping, carpentry and construction.[74] The Bossert Hotel at 98 Montague Street was bought in 1983 as a residence building.[75]
97 Columbia Heights, the former site of the Margaret Hotel, was purchased in 1986.[71] It was ideally located next to the WTBTS residences at 107 and 124 Columbia Heights and it could easily tie in with the main complex on the other side of the street by means of an under-street tunnel. An 11-story residential building was erected on the site to house 250 workers.[76][77] A property at 90 Sands Street was bought in December 1986. A 30-story residential building[71] for 1,000 workers was completed on the site in 1995. A 1996 publication listed other Watch Tower residential buildings in Brooklyn, including the 12-story Bossert Hotel, 34 Orange Street (1945), the Standish Arms Hotel at 169 Columbia Heights (1981), 67 Livingston Street (1989), and 108 Joralemon Street (1988).[71]
Two properties known as Watchtower Farms, at Wallkill, 160 kilometres (99mi) north of Brooklyn and totaling 1,200 hectares (3,000 acres), were bought in 1963 and 1967. Factories were erected in 1973 and 1975.[70] In 2012–2014 the Watch Tower Society added an office building, residence building and garage.[78] In 1984, the society paid $2.1 million for a 270 hectare farm at Patterson, New York[79] for a development that included 624 apartments, garages for 800 cars, and a 149-room hotel.[80] Other rural purchases included a 220 hectares (540 acres) farm near South Lansing, New York, and a 60 hectares (150 acres) farm near Port Murray, New Jersey.[79]
In February 2009, the Watch Tower Society paid $11.5 million for 100 hectares of land in Ramapo, New York, for an administration and residential complex.[81] The site was reported to be planned as a base for about 850 Watch Tower workers, creating a compound combining residential and publishing facilities currently located in Brooklyn. A Witness spokesman said the land was currently zoned for residential uses, but an application would be made to rezone it, adding that "Construction is several years in the future."[82]
A year later, the Watch Tower Society announced it planned to move its world headquarters from Brooklyn to a proposed eight-building complex, replacing the pre-existing four-building complex on a 100-hectare Watch Tower property in Warwick, New York,[78] 1.5km from its Ramapo site.[83][84] A Watch Tower presentation to Warwick planning authorities said the complex would house up to 850 people.[85][86] In July 2012, the Warwick planning commission approved the environmental impact statement for building the Warwick site.[87][88] In July 2013, Warwick approved building plans of the multiple building complex of the new headquarters, including four residence buildings of 588 rooms for about 1,000 people.[89]
In August 2011, a 50-acre property was bought in Tuxedo, New York, with 184,000 square foot building, for $3.2 million, six miles from the Warwick site to facilitate the staging of machinery and building materials.[90] The Watch Tower Society bought a 48-unit apartment building in Suffern, New York, near Warwick, New York, for housing temporary construction workers in June 2013.[91] In December 2014, the society bought the 250-unit Rivercrest Luxury Apartments in Fishkill, Dutchess County, New York. The sale price was not released, though taxes on the sale indicated a transaction of $57 million. The current leases will not be renewed.[92]
Brooklyn property sales
The former Watch Tower Society headquarters in Columbia Heights, Brooklyn.
In 2004, the Watch Tower Society began transferring its printing operations to its Wallkill factory complex.[93][94] The move triggered the sale of a number of Brooklyn factory and residential properties, including:
360 Furman Street, sold in 2004 for $205 million;[95]
67 Livingston Street, (nicknamed the Sliver)[96] sold in 2006 for $18.6 million.[95]
89 Hicks Street, sold in 2006 for $14 million.[95]
Standish Arms Hotel, 169 Columbia Heights, sold in 2007 for $50 million.[97]
183 Columbia Heights, bought in 1986, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in April 2012 for $6.6 million.[94][98][99]
161 Columbia Heights, bought in 1988, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in March 2012 for $3 million.[94][98]
165 Columbia Heights, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in January 2012 for $4.1 million.[94][100]
105 Willow Street, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in April 2012 for $3.3 million.[94][101]
34 Orange Street, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in November 2012 for $2,825,000.[94][102]
Bossert Hotel, 98 Montague Street, bought in 1983,[75] offered for sale in 2008.[82] sold in 2012 to a hotel developer, Rosewood Realty Group, for $81 million.[103][104]
50 Orange Street, bought in 1988, renovated to sell 2006, and sold in December 2011 for $7.1 million.[105]
67 Remsen Street, offered for sale in July 2012,[106] and sold the same year for $3.25 million.[107]
Three adjoining properties (173 Front Street, 177 Front Street and 200 Water Street) sold together for 30.6 million in April 2013 to Urban Realty Partners.[108][109]
55 Furman Street, 400,000 sq. ft., is for sale as of June 2013.[110]
Five adjoining properties (175 Pearl Street, 55 Prospect Street, 81 Prospect Street, 117 Adams Street, and 77 Sands Street totaling 700,000 sq. ft.), offered for sale in September 2011,[111][112] under contract as of July 2013 to a three company buy-out. A sixth building (90 Sands Street, about 500,000 sq. ft., a 505-room, 30-story building) in this sale will be released in 2017, after the scheduled completion of the Jehovah's Witnesses' new headquarters in Warwick, New York. The properties are under contract for $375 million at completion of the sale.[110]
Two private parking lots are for sale as of June 2013.[110]
124 Columbia Heights, bought in 1909, was sold in May 2016 to Florida Panthers' Vincent Viola for $105 million.[113][114]
In 2016, three more properties valued at an estimated $850 million to $1 billion—including the headquarters building—were put up for sale.[115] The Watch Tower Society sold the 25/30 Columbia Heights complex along with adjoining 50 and 58 Columbia Heights and 55 Furman Street sites on August 3, 2016, for $340 million.[116][117]
In 2011, the Watch Tower Society was reported to still own 34 properties in Brooklyn;[8][118] a 2009 report calculated "a dozen or more" properties in the Brooklyn area.[82] In a 2010 news report the society said it was "not actively promoting" the sale of eight Brooklyn properties still on the market.[85] The society's remaining nine unsold Brooklyn properties are 97, 107, and 119 Columbia Heights; 80 and 86 Willow Street; 21 Clark Street (Towers Hotel); parking lots at 67 Furman Street, 1 York Street and 85 Jay Street; and 90 Sands Street already arranged to sell in 2017. Many sold buildings are to be emptied by 2017.[119] The Furman Street properties and parking lots are for sale currently as stated above.
Other countries
In 1900, the Watch Tower Society opened its first overseas branch office in Britain.[120] Germany followed in 1903[121] and Australia in 1904.[122] By 1979 the society had 39 printing branches throughout the world, with facilities transferred to farming properties in many countries, including Brazil, Sweden, Denmark, Canada and Australia.[123] In 2011, the society had 98 branch offices worldwide reporting to New York directly; other nations' offices report to large branches nearby.[124]
Critics, including Raymond Franz, Edmond C. Gruss and James Penton, have accused the Watch Tower Society of being authoritarian, controlling and coercive in its dealings with Witnesses. Franz, a former Governing Body member, has claimed the society's emphasis of the term "theocratic organization" to describe the authority structure of Jehovah's Witnesses, which places God at the apex of its organization, is designed to exercise control over every aspect of the lives of Jehovah's Witnesses[186] and condition them to think it is wrong for them to question anything the society publishes as truth.[187][188]
The Watch Tower Society has been accused of employing techniques of mind control on Witnesses, including the direction to avoid reading criticism of the organization,[189][190] frequent and tightly controlled "indoctrination" meetings, regimentation, social alienation and elaborate promises of future rewards.[191][192] Apart from life stories, all Watch Tower Society magazine articles and other publications are written anonymously and correspondence from the society does not typically indicate a specific author or personal signature.[193]
Jehovah's Witnesses is a nontrinitarian, millenarian, restorationist Christian denomination. As of 2023, the group reported approximately 8.6 million members involved in evangelism, with around 20.5 million attending the annual Memorial of Christ's death. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and the establishment of God's kingdom over earth is the only solution to all of humanity's problems.
Charles Taze Russell, or Pastor Russell, was an American Adventist minister from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and founder of the Bible Student movement. He was an early Christian Zionist.
A number of corporations are in use by Jehovah's Witnesses. They publish literature and perform other operational and administrative functions, representing the interests of the religious organization. "The Society" has been used as a collective term for these corporations.
Joseph Franklin Rutherford, also known as Judge Rutherford, was an American religious leader and the second president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. He played a primary role in the organization and doctrinal development of Jehovah's Witnesses, which emerged from the Bible Student movement established by Charles Taze Russell.
The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom is an illustrated religious magazine, published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Jehovah's Witnesses distribute The Watchtower—Public Edition, along with its companion magazine, Awake!.
Jehovah's Witnesses are organized hierarchically, and are led by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses from the Watch Tower Society's headquarters in Warwick, New York. The Governing Body, along with other "helpers", are organized into six committees responsible for various administrative functions within the global Witness community, including publication, assembly programs and evangelizing activity.
Don Alden Adams was president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (2000–2014), the principal corporation of Jehovah's Witnesses.
The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society produces a significant amount of printed and electronic literature, primarily for use by Jehovah's Witnesses. Their best known publications are the magazines, The Watchtower and Awake!
Kingdom songs are the hymns sung by Jehovah's Witnesses at their religious meetings. Since 1879, the Watch Tower Society has published hymnal lyrics; by the 1920s they had published hundreds of adapted and original songs, and by the 1930s they referred to these as "Kingdom songs" in reference to God's Kingdom.
The Bible Student movement is a Millennialist Restorationist Christian movement. It emerged in the United States from the teachings and ministry of Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916), also known as Pastor Russell, and his founding of the Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881. Members of the movement have variously referred to themselves as Bible Students, International Bible Students, Associated Bible Students, or Independent Bible Students.
Frederick William Franz was an American religious leader who served as president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, the legal entity used to administer the work of Jehovah's Witnesses. He had previously served as vice president of the same corporation from 1945 until 1977 when he replaced Nathan H. Knorr as president. He was also a member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, which assumed over-all control of all Jehovah's Witness corporations in 1976.
The Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses is the ruling council of Jehovah's Witnesses, based in the denomination's Warwick, New York, headquarters. The body formulates doctrines, oversees the production of written material for publications and conventions, and administers the denomination's worldwide operations. Official publications refer to members of the Governing Body as followers of Christ rather than religious leaders.
Olin Richmond Moyle was legal counsel for the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society from 1935 to 1939. He helped represent Jehovah's Witnesses in two cases before the United States Supreme Court, which set new precedents on First Amendment freedoms. A dispute with Watch Tower Society president J. F. Rutherford led to Moyle's expulsion from the religion. Moyle later sued the Watch Tower Society for libel over an article in its magazine, The Watchtower. In his later years, he became one of the leaders of the United Israel World Union, a movement that sought to convert people, particularly Christians, to Judaism.
Jehovah's Witnesses originated as a branch of the Bible Student movement, which developed in the United States in the 1870s among followers of Christian restorationist minister Charles Taze Russell. Bible Student missionaries were sent to England in 1881 and the first overseas branch was opened in London in 1900. The group took on the name International Bible Students Association and by 1914 it was also active in Canada, Germany, Australia and other countries.
The doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses have developed since publication of The Watchtower magazine began in 1879. Early doctrines were based on interpretations of the Bible by Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society founder Charles Taze Russell, then added to, altered or discarded by his successors, Joseph Rutherford and Nathan Knorr. Since 1976, doctrinal changes have been made at closed meetings of the group's Governing Body, whose decisions are described as "God's progressive revelations". These teachings are disseminated through The Watchtower, and at conventions and congregation meetings. Most members of the denomination outside the Governing Body play no role in the development of doctrines and are expected to adhere to all those decided at the Warwick, NY headquarters. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught to welcome doctrinal changes, regarding such "adjustments" as "new light" or "new understanding" from God and proving that they are on the "path of the righteous".
Hayden Cooper Covington was legal counsel for the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in the mid-20th century. He argued numerous cases before the United States Supreme Court on behalf of Jehovah’s Witnesses in defense of their religious freedoms, winning most of them. In 1967, he defended then world heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali in his legal battle against the draft during the Vietnam War.
Alexander Hugh Macmillan, also referred to as A. H. Macmillan, was an important member of the Bible Students, and later, of Jehovah’s Witnesses. He became a board member of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1917 and again in 1920. He presented a history of the religious movement in his book Faith on the March, published in 1957.
Beth Sarim is a ten-bedroom mansion in San Diego, California, constructed in 1929 in anticipation of various resurrected Old Testament biblical patriarchs or prophets such as Abraham, Moses, David, Isaiah and Samuel. It was maintained by the Watch Tower Society, the parent organization used by Jehovah's Witnesses, and was also used as a winter home and executive office for Watch Tower president Joseph Franklin Rutherford. The house was sold to a private owner in 1948.
A dispute developed in 1917 within the leadership of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society following the death of society president Charles Taze Russell and election of legal counsel Joseph Franklin Rutherford as his successor. An acrimonious battle ensued between Rutherford and four of the society's seven directors, who accused him of autocratic behavior and sought to reduce his powers. Rutherford claimed the dissident directors had formed a conspiracy to seize control of the society and overcame the challenge by gaining a legal opinion that his four opposers had not been legally appointed. He subsequently replaced them with four new sympathetic directors.
Nathan Homer Knorr was the third president of Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. He was appointed president in January 1942, replacing Joseph Franklin Rutherford, who had served in the position since 1917.
↑ 1980 Yearbook. Watch Tower Society. p.257. The first of these, formed in 1881 and incorporated in 1884, is known today as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. It is the parent of similar religious corporations formed world wide. Among such are the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc., and the International Bible Students Association in a number of British Commonwealth nations.
↑ "Girl's midnight visit to Pastor Russell", Brooklyn Eagle, August 14, 1909, "His wife, whom he married 30 years ago, when she was Maria F. Ackley, obtained a limited divorce from him in Pittsburg on the ground of cruelty. The judge who decided for Mrs Russell granted her $100 a month alimony. Pastor Russell was slow in coming to the front with payments and finally stopped paying alimony altogether. An order was ordered for the pastor's arrest in Pittsburg, but Brooklyn is a comfortable enough place and Pastor Russell didn't like going back to Pittsburg where a yawning prison awaited him. He said that his friends had paid the alimony, anyhow, and that he was purged of contempt of court thereby."
1 2 George D. Chryssides. Jehovah's Witnesses: Continuity and Change. p.143.
↑ Amendments to articles II, III, VII, VIII, and X were passed unanimously, with more than 225,000 votes cast; the amendments to article V of the Charter, affecting qualifications for membership of the society, were passed 225,255 to 47.
1 2 3 4 5 The Watchtower, December 1, 1982, page 23.
1 2 3 4 5 The Watchtower, April 15, 1996, page 24.
↑ Awake!, April 22, 1989, pages 25–27; "In fact, the Towers, 124 Columbia Heights, 107 Columbia Heights, and 119 Columbia Heights, which accommodate nearly 2,000 of the family, are connected by underground tunnels."
↑ Centennial of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1984, pages 8–9.
↑ "New Shipping Facilities of Jehovah’s Witnesses", Awake!, August 22, 1987, pages 16–18.
↑ "Building to Jehovah’s Glory", The Watchtower, May 1, 1979, pages 26–29.
↑ 2012 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses p.32, 33, 55.
↑ Charter of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society (1881), signed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by Charles Taze Russell, Albert Delmont Jones, William Henry Conley and Joseph Lytel/Lytle Russell.
1 2 3 4 5 6 "A charter of incorporation for Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was granted December 13, 1884. [...] The incorporators are the Directors, named below [...] Directors C. T. Russell, Pres., M. F. Russell, Sec and Treas., W. C. McMillan, W. I. Mann, Vice Pres., J. B. Adamson, J. F. Smith."–Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, January 1885, p. 1, reprints p. 707.
1 2 3 4 "Organization of the Work", The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, December 1, 1916, p. 391, reprints p. 6024, "Two days after his [C. T. Russell's] death the Board met and elected Brother A. N. Pierson as a member of the Board to fill the vacancy caused by Brother Russell's change. The seven members of the Board as now constituted are A. I. Ritchie, W. E. Van Amburgh, H. C. Rockwell, J. D. Wright, I. F. Hoskins, A. N. Pierson and J. F. Rutherford."
↑ Trial transcript(PDF). 1918. p.662. In August, 1901, I was elected as a member of the Board of Directors.
↑ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p.622, , "In 1916, W. E. Van Amburgh declared: “This great worldwide work is not the work of one person. . . . It is God’s work.” Although he saw others turn away, he remained firm in that conviction right down till his death in 1947, at 83 years of age."
1 2 "It was also announced that M. G. Henschel was elected by the board of directors to fill the vacancy made on the board by the death of W. E. Van Amburgh."—1947 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 223.
1 2 3 Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p.65, , "So, two days after Russell’s death, the board of directors met and elected A. N. Pierson to be a member. The seven members of the board at that point were A. I. Ritchie, W. E. Van Amburgh, H. C. Rockwell, J. D. Wright, I. F. Hoskins, A. N. Pierson, and J. F. Rutherford."
↑ Russell, Charles Taze (posthumous) (December 1, 1916). "Will and Testament of Charles Taze Russell". The Watchtower and Herald of Christ's Presence. p.358, reprints p. 5999.
1 2 "On January 13, 1942, a special meeting was called of the board of directors of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society (Pennsylvania corporation) and the board of directors of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Inc. (New York corporation). A joint meeting was held at Brooklyn, New York, for the election of a president. The boards of directors were notified of the passing of Brother J. F. Rutherford as president, January 8, 1942, and the purpose of this meeting was to fill this vacancy. The joint boards unanimously elected Nathan H. Knorr as president of both corporations. This caused a vacancy in the office of vice-president, whereupon Hayden C. Covington was unanimously elected as vice-president of the two corporations."—1943 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 225.
1 2 The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, January 15, 1918, p. 23.
↑ "One Hundred Years Ago—1917". 2017 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. 2017. p.175. However, at the annual meeting of the corporation on January 6, 1917, only three members of the board, Joseph F. Rutherford, Andrew N. Pierson, and William E. Van Amburgh, were elected.
1 2 3 4 The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, November 1, 1917, p. 330.
1 2 3 4 5 6 The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, January 15, 1919, p. 24.
1 2 3 4 The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, January 15, 1920, p. 30.
1 2 3 4 "I therefore, take pleasure in nominating for Directors the following: J. F. Rutherford, C. A. Wise, W. E. Van Amburgh, A. H. Macmillan, Hugo H. Riemer, J. A. Baeuerlein, C. H. Anderson"—The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, December 15, 1923, p. 383.
1 2 3 4 "The corporation, the WATCH TOWER BIBLE & TRACT SOCIETY, pursuant to its charter and by-laws, and the laws of the State of Pennsylvania, held its annual meeting at Pittsburgh, North Side, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, on the first day of October, A.D. 1938, at which annual meeting a Board of Directors was elected as follows, to wit: J. F. Rutherford, C. A. Wise, W. E. Van Amburgh, H. H. Riemer, T. J. Sullivan, Wm. P. Heath, Jr., and Grant Suiter, to hold office for a period of three years, or until their successors are duly elected."—1939 Year Book of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 195.
1 2 "Pursuant to notice duly given as provided by law and by the charter and by-laws of the Society the annual meeting of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society was held at Memorial Hall, Pittsburgh, Pa. at ten o'clock Monday, November 1st, 1926. [...] Thereupon Brother C. H. Anderson arose and stated to the corporate members that he was so situated that he could not give personal attention to the duties as a member of the Board of Directors, and therefore withdrew his name"—1927 Year Book of the International Bible Students Association, pp. 33, 34 and The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, December 1, 1926, p. 381.
1 2 "We would like to note here that John Otto Groh was elected a director of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania on April 5, 1965, to fill the term of Brother H. H. Riemer, who died March 31, 1965"—1966 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 289.
↑ "R. J. Martin [...] died at his post on September 23, 1932, at the age of fifty-four years. (Born March 30, 1878) His death “in union with the Lord” was announced in the issue of October 1, 1932, of The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence, page 304, which said, in part: It was just past midnight, or the beginning of the morning of September 23, 1932, that Robert J. Martin, a soldier in the organization of Jehovah, folded his earthly tent and peacefully went away."—God's Kingdom of a Thousand Years Has Approached, pp. 245, 246.
1 2 Year Book of Jehovah's Witnesses for 1936, pp. 192, 193.
↑ "Some of the Convention Aides", The Messenger, July 31, 1928, p. 2.
↑ "On October 31, 1932, he [Sullivan] was made a member of the board of directors of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania"—The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, September 15, 1974, p. 554.
1 2 "T. J. Sullivan, who has been a faithful and beloved brother and director of the Society for approximately forty years, had found it necessary to resign on September 5, 1973. [...] A few weeks earlier the board of directors had accepted his resignation, so now it was necessary to recommend another director in his place. W. K. Jackson's name was put in nomination. [...] On October 2 the members of the board of directors met for the purpose of electing officers for the ensuing year."—1974 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, pp. 257, 258.
↑ "Grant Suiter [...] finished his earthly course the morning of November 22, and announcement of this was made to the Bethel family at Brooklyn and Watchtower Farms following morning worship and breakfast that morning."—The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, February 1, 1984, p. 9. Suiter was replaced by Jaracz, Barr and Barry already serving earlier.
↑ "The following brethren were put in nomination: J. F. Rutherford / T. J. Sullivan / N. H. Knorr / Grant Suiter / W. E. Van Amburgh / W. P. Heath, Jr. / H. H. Riemer"—1942 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 227.
1 2 "New Watch Tower President Elected". The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom. August 1, 1977. p.463. Retrieved April 10, 2024. JEHOVAH'S work on earth continues to move on grandly under the leadership of the enthroned King, Jesus Christ. With the passing of our beloved Brother Nathan H. Knorr on June 8, 1977, it became necessary to elect a new president for the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, the corporation that handles the activities of Jehovah's Witnesses world wide, and also for the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc., the legal agency for administering the affairs of Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States. Acting on a united recommendation by all fifteen members of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, the directors of the two corporations held a joint meeting on June 22, 1977, at which Frederick W. Franz was elected president of both corporations by unanimous vote.
↑ "In 1940, Hayden C. Covington—then the Society's legal counsel and one of the "other sheep," with the earthly hope—was elected a director of the Society. (John 10:16) He served as the Society's vice president from 1942 to 1945. At that time, Brother Covington stepped aside as a director."—The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah' Kingdom, January 1, 2001, page 28.
1 2 Franz died on December 22, 1992, and the meeting after Franz' death occurred on December 30, 1992, according to The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, March 15, 1993, p. 32.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "AT THE conclusion of the annual meeting of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania on October 7, 2000, a special announcement was made [... M]embers of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses who had been serving as directors and officers voluntarily stepped aside from the boards of directors of all the corporations used by "the faithful and discreet slave" in the United States. Responsible brothers of the other sheep class were elected as replacements."—The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, January 15, 2001, p. 31.
↑ "IN THE early morning hours of Thursday, January 23, 1975, John Otto Groh ended forty-one years of devoted service to Jehovah his God."—The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, March 15, 1975, p. 190. The replacing director was not mentioned.
↑ "William Kirk Jackson was born September 16, 1901, at Galveston, Texas. After a lifetime of devoted service to Jehovah God, he completed his earthly course on December 13, 1981."—The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, February 15, 1982, p. 15. The replacing director was not mentioned.
↑ Booth died on January 8, 1996, according to The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, June 15, 1996, p. 32. The replacing director was not mentioned.
↑ "A Notable Annual Meeting". The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom. February 15, 1983. pp.10–11. Mention of Barr being reelected on October 2, 1982.
↑ "Brother Barry died on July 2, 1999, while having a direct part in serving a district convention in Hawaii."—The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, October 1, 1999, p. 16. The replacing director was not mentioned.
1 2 "Ordained Ministers Appointed to Special Service". 1956 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. 1955. p.59. Wallen, Robert Wayne [...] Wischuk, John Nelson
↑ "Passed Beyond the Vail", Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, April 15, 1906, p. 126, reprints p. 3765, "ANOTHER member of the Board [...] Brother William M. Wright, passed beyond the vail, into the Most Holy, we trust, on April 3."
1 2 3 "The Corporation is to be managed by a Board of Directors consisting of seven members, and the names and residences of those already chosen directors are [we give the names of the present board and officers] as follows:—Charles T. Russell, President, W. C. McMillan, Henry Weber, Vice President, J. B. Adamson, Maria F. Russell, Sec’y & Treas., Simon O. Blunden. Rose J. Ball."–A Conspiracy Exposed, extra edition of Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, April 25, 1894, p. 56.
↑ "Pilgrim Brother Henry Weber has passed beyond the vail, to be forever with the Lord. We rejoice on his behalf. He finished his earthly course on Thursday, January 21st, at 2:15 p.m., at his home—Oakland, Md.—and was buried on Saturday, the 23rd. [...] Hence, although we will sadly miss our dear brother, as a friend and as a pilgrim and as a Vice-President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, nevertheless we sorrow not as others who have less substantial hopes."–"Entered into his Rest", Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, February 1, 1904, reprints p. 3314.
1 2 3 4 5 6 "The History and Operations of Our Society". The Watchtower and Herald of Christ's Presence. November 1, 1917. pp. 327–329, reprints pp. 6162–6163. In 1884, together with six others, he [Russell] formed a corporation under the name and style of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, incorporating it under the laws of the State of Pennsylvania. [...] The six others named in the Charter as members of the Board of Directors severed their connection with the Society by resignation or otherwise, at the dates named below:— W. I. Mann — April 11, 1892 J. F. Smith — April 11, 1892 J. B. Adamson — Jan. 5, 1895 W. C. MacMillan — May 13, 1898 Mrs. M. F. Russell — Feb. 12, 1900 S. O. Blunden — Jan. 6, 1908
↑ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, pp.65–66, "During the trouble in 1894, Mrs. C. T. Russell (the former Maria Frances Ackley, whom Russell had married in 1879) undertook a tour from New York to Chicago, meeting with Bible Students along the way and speaking in her husband’s behalf. Being an educated, intelligent woman, she was well received when visiting the congregations at that time. Mrs. Russell was a director of the Watch Tower Society and served as its secretary and treasurer for some years."
↑ "You Must Be Holy Because Jehovah Is Holy". The Watchtower. February 15, 1976. pp.119–125., as cited by R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", page 107,"Would not a failure to respond to direction from God through his organization really indicate a rejection of divine rulership?"
Rutherford, J. F. (October 1, 1917b). "Harvest Siftings, Part II"(PDF). Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. Archived from the original(PDF) on July 15, 2011. Retrieved July 19, 2009.
Pierson, A. N.; etal. (September 1, 1917). "Light After Darkness"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on July 15, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2009.
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