Way of the Celestial Masters

Last updated
Way of the Celestial Masters
Traditional Chinese 天師道
Simplified Chinese 天师道

In 142 CE, Zhang Daoling announced that Laozi had appeared to him, and commanded him to rid the world of decadence and establish a new state consisting only of the "chosen people". Zhang became the first Celestial Master, and began to spread his newly founded movement throughout the province of Sichuan. The movement was initially called the "Way of the Five Pecks of Rice", because each person wishing to join was required to donate five pecks of rice. [3] The movement spread rapidly, particularly under his son Zhang Heng  [ zh ] and grandson Zhang Lu. [4] Their rebellion against the Han dynasty is known as the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. After the success of the rebellion in 194, they founded the theocratic state of Zhang Han in the Hanzhong Valley of Sichuan, enjoying full independence. [4]

正一 Zhengyi included in their religious liturgy, the Daoist writings of the Han, Laozi, the 3 caves and 7 parts. [5] 方士 Fangshi originated in southern China. Sin was punished by ailments in the view of the Heavenly Masters. [6] The Shangqing syncretized the Heavenly Masters with fangshi. [7] Buddhism, Fangshi, and Heavenly Masters were synchronized in Lingbao. [8]

The 180 precepts of the Celestial Masters were rules on morality. [9] Stocking up riches was banned by Daoism. [10]

A 173 AD Sichuan stele provides physical proof for the Celestial Masters existence at its oldest. [11] China's southeastern area may have seen the spread of Celestial Masters in the Six Dynasties. [12] At the start of their existence a large amount of religious text canon was already written by the Celestial Masters. [13] Celestial Masters used an 精室 "essential chamber" for ceremonies. [14] Specific attire was worn by Daoists. [15] Celestial Master collectives had secretaries assigned to them on the basis of their population. [16] Clerics of the Celestial Masters were referred to as 黃赤祭酒 "libationers of the yellow and red" in the era of the Six dynasties. [17] There were stationery clerics and roving clerics. [18] Distinctions between different social groups in civilization were recognized and utilized accordingly by the Celestial Masters. The Celestial Masters did not find monastic lifestyle attractive and rather passed down their teachings to their biological heirs. [19] Children and widows were part of the Celestial Master groups. [20] Tablets were clutched and prostrations were conducted by clerics. [21] The Dadaojia Lingjie denounced the Yellow Turbans who were enemies of the Celestial Masters. [22] A ritual master of the Celestial Masters may have been a 齋官 fast officer. [23] Daoist Lingbao and Celestial Masters may have overlapped in customs with the Daoist Louguan ceremonies. [24]

Building temples, effigies and fasting was practiced by Daoists to gain blessings. [25]

寇謙之 Kou Qianzhi was the leader of the Celestial Masters north branch. [26]

Celestial Masters north branch under Kou Qianzhi worshipped divinities described in the 魏書 Book of Wei. [27] Yin Xi and the Elder Lord are absent from the Celestial Masters of Kou Qianzhi. [28]

Shandong, Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, and Shanxi were where the Celestial Masters northern branch operated, while Louguan and Guanzhong Daoism developed around Henan, Shanxi and Shaanxi. [29] Celestial Masters are not believed to be connected with stele founded in Shaanxi. [30]

An anti-Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. [31] The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked, and as anti-stability and anti-family. [32] Anti-Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. [33] There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the non-fulfillment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti-Buddhist campaign. [34]

太上老君 Taishang Laojun was the Celestial Masters' main deity. [35]

In the Southern dynasties 正一經 Zhengyi Jing was part of the religious canon of the Celestial Masters. [36] In the Tang and Sui Daoists reconciled the Zhengyi jing with the religious texts of the Lingbao. [37]

Celestial Masters and the nobility of northern China subdued the nobility of southern China during the Eastern Jin and Western Jin in Jiangnan in particular. [38]

The Celestial Master canon was not found among the religious texts in the Lingbao caves. [39]

The ceremonies of the Celestial Masters, Sanhuang, Lingbao, and Shangqing were categorized and grouped by Lu Xiujing. [40]

In the Eastern Han the Celestial Masters spread to the northwest. [41] Celestial Masters believed in communication with spirits. [42]

Religious canon was divided into 七部 7 sections during the Southern dynasties by the Celestial Masters. [43] Non specific designations were used for the divinities of the most sublime station by the Celestial Masters. [44] 道門定制 Daomen dingzhi was a religious texts composed in the Song dynasty. [45] Buddhism, Celestial Masters and fangshi all contributed to the religious canon of Lingbao. [46] Celestial Master petitions to divinities were copied by the canon of the Lingbao and fangshi rites were also copied by them. [47] Sichuan was the origin of the Celestial Masters. [48] Different beliefs were held by the different groups of Daoists. [49] 天師治儀 Tianshi zhiyi. [50]

In 215, Zhang Lu submitted to Cao Cao, the ruler of the Wei Kingdom, surrendering his state in exchange for gaining state religion status for Tianshi Daoism. Zhang was given a title and land, as were several other family members and generals. His daughter was married to Cao Cao's son, Cao Yu. His followers were forced to resettle in other parts of China, with one group being sent to the Chang'an area, and another being sent to Luoyang. Zhang relocated to the Han court until the Han dynasty changed to the Wei. He then used his own popularity as a religious leader to lend legitimacy to the Wei, proclaiming that the Wei court had inherited divine authority from the Tao church, as well as from Confucian laws.[ citation needed ]

The collapse of the Wei Kingdom in 260 CE, along with the fall of Northern China to the Huns in 317, further scattered adherents to the Celestial Masterhood. [51] The Celestial Masters later reemerged in the 4th and 5th centuries as two distinct offshoots, the Northern and Southern Celestial Masters.

Celestial Masters had prophecy rituals banned since what happens in the future it was supposed to be just known already by the member without rituals. [52]

For the water, earth, and heaven officials, Celestial Masters wrote the 三官手書 sanguan shoushu. [53]

The Southern Celestial Masters

After the fall of Luoyang to non-Chinese invaders in 311, the remnants of the court fled to Jiankang (modern-day Nanjing) and established a new state known as the Eastern Jin dynasty. Among the court members who fled were members of the Celestial Masters. There is also evidence that after Zhang Lu's submission to Cao Cao, numerous adherents fled south from Sichuan. These various followers of The Way of the Celestial Master coalesced to form a distinct form of Celestial Master Daoism known as the Southern Celestial Masters. The Southern Celestial Masters lasted as a distinct movement into the fifth century.

The Northern Celestial Masters

Kou Qianzhi, who was raised in a Celestial Master family, received two visions of Laozi in 415 and in 423. In 424, he brought the work that resulted from these visions to the court of the Northern Wei dynasty. The rulers put his works into practice, and Kou became the Celestial Master of the Daoist theocracy of the Northern Wei. After Kou died in 448, the prime minister, Cui Hao, became power hungry and began to insult the Wei rulers. Unhappy with his insubordination, the rulers had Cui executed in 450, and ended the Daoist theocracy.

The Celestial Masters today

During the Yuan dynasty, the Zhengyi Dao School of Daoism claimed lineage to the Celestial Masters. They became one of the two leading schools of Daoism in China, along with Quanzhen Dao. Zhengyi Daoists became common in the Jiangxi, Jiangsu, and Fujian provinces of China, as well as in Taiwan.

Zhang Yucai, the Celestial Master (38th) drew a handscroll of a dragon. Zhang Sicheng was the 39th and succeeded him. [54]

Celestial Master teachings and Daoxue were mixed together by Yu Ji, whose teacher was 吳澄 Wu Cheng. [55]

Daoism's biggest known conceptions are folk religion, the Celestial Masters, and Quanzhen Daoism in the modern era since Wang Changyue launched a renaissance of the Quanzhen. [56]

The Celestial Masters have survived into the 20th century. In 1949, after the communists dominated mainland China, the 63rd Celestial Master, Zhang Enpu (張恩溥), migrated to Taiwan with the Kuomintang government. [57] After his death, a succession dispute arose between different branches of the family in Taiwan and mainland China.

The Celestial Masters Order in mainland China suffered badly during the Cultural Revolution but managed to survive. They were finally allowed to ordain priests into Zhengyi Order at the Celestial Master's Mansion in 1982.

Beliefs and practices

Zhang Daoling, the first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling.jpg
Zhang Daoling, the first Celestial Master

Each of the three different eras of the Celestial Masters had distinct beliefs. However, because the Southern and Northern Celestial Masters both descended directly from the initial movement founded by Zhang Daoling, there are many beliefs that are shared. A number of texts exist that give insight into early Celestial Master practice, in particular the Taiping Jing and the Xiang'er commentary to the Laozi.

The foundation of Daoist belief is that there is an energy source known as qi that pervades all things. The human body also contains qi, but it only has a limited amount of qi. Qi could be lost from the body through things such as sweating and ejaculation. The Celestial Masters shared these foundational Daoist beliefs, but modified them slightly.

One such change was that illness was caused by sin. This was because sin caused qi to leave the body. In order to cure any illness, repentance was a crucial factor in ensuring that the loss of qi could be staunched. Repentance could be accomplished by spending time in a 'Chamber of Silence,' and reflecting on one's sins, or by beating one's breasts and kowtowing to heaven. Illness could also be cured in other ways as well, among them using medicinal herbs and by listening to ritual music. Eating very little was also of extreme importance, and an ideal diet would consist of no food at all, but only noncorporeal things such as air, which the person could absorb through meditation.

Sexual practices (known as heqi, or 'The Union of the Breaths') were not part of Celestial Master Daoism. While the School of the Naturalists (and offshoot schools) advocated Huanjing bunao ("returning the semen/essence to replenish the brain"), which the Celestial Masters frowned upon, and simply advocated celibacy as a way to avoid losing qi. In addition, the Celestial Masters thought that the macrobiotic method of stealing a woman's qi to replenish the man's own qi was completely wrong, and should not be practiced. [58]

Significance

The Celestial Masters were the first group of organized Daoists. [1] Before their foundation, Daoism did not exist as an organized religion. [1] Being the first organized religious Daoists, the Celestial Masters are the ancestors of subsequent Daoist movements such as the Shangqing and Lingbao movements.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lingbao School</span> Daoist school

The Lingbao School, also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School of Numinous Treasure, was an important Daoist school that emerged in China in between the Jin dynasty and the Liu Song dynasty in the early fifth century CE. It lasted for about two hundred years until it was absorbed into the Shangqing and Zhengyi currents during the Tang dynasty. The Lingbao School is a synthesis of religious ideas based on Shangqing texts, the rituals of the Celestial Masters, and Buddhist practices.

Kou Qianzhi (365–448) was a Taoist reformer who reenvisioned many of the ceremonies and rites of the Way of the Celestial Master form of Taoism and reformulated its theology into a new movement known as The Northern Celestial Masters. His influence was such that he had Taoism established as the official state religion of the Northern Wei dynasty (386–535); this act, however, embroiled Taoism in long and often bloody factional political struggles. There was a saying Kou Qianzhi once secluded in Mount Huashan for his Taoism meditation.

Empress She was an empress of the Qiang-led Chinese Later Qin dynasty. Her husband was the founding emperor Yao Chang, and she was the mother of Yao Chang's crown prince and successor Yao Xing.

Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, personal name Tuoba Tao (拓拔燾), Xianbei name Büri (佛貍), was the third emperor of China's Northern Wei dynasty. He was generally regarded as a capable ruler, and during his reign, the Northern Wei roughly doubled in size and unified all of northern China, thus ending the Sixteen Kingdoms period and, together with the southern dynasty Liu Song, starting the Southern and Northern Dynasties period of Chinese history. He was a devout Taoist, under the influence of his prime minister Cui Hao, and in 444, at Cui Hao's suggestion and believing that Buddhists had supported the rebellion of Gai Wu (蓋吳), he ordered the abolition of Buddhism, at the penalty of death. This was the first of the Three Disasters of Wu for Chinese Buddhism. Late in his reign, his reign began to be cruel, and his people were also worn out by his incessant wars against the Liu Song dynasty. In 452, he was assassinated by his eunuch Zong Ai, who put his son Tuoba Yu on the throne but then assassinated Tuoba Yu as well. The other officials overthrew Zong and put Emperor Taiwu's grandson Tuoba Jun.

Cui Hao, courtesy name Boyuan (伯淵), was a shangshu of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China. Largely because of Cui's counsel, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei was able to unify northern China, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era and, along with the Liu Song dynasty in southern China, entering the Northern and Southern dynasties era. Also because of the influence of Cui, who was a devout Taoist, Emperor Taiwu became a devout Taoist as well. However, in 450, over reasons that are not completely clear to this day, Emperor Taiwu had Cui and his cadet branch executed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern Celestial Masters</span> Taoist movement during Northern and Southern dynasties

The Northern Celestial Masters are an evolution of the Daoist Way of the Celestial Master in the north of China during the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Northern Celestial Masters were a continuation of the Way as it had been practiced in Sichuan province by Zhang Lu and his followers. After the community was forced to relocate in 215 CE, a group of Celestial Masters established themselves in Northern China. Kou Qianzhi, from a family who followed the Celestial Master, brought a new version of Celestial Master Daoism to the Northern Wei. The Northern Wei government embraced his form of Daoism and established it as the state religion, thereby creating a new Daoist theocracy that lasted until 450 CE. The arrival of Buddhism had great influence on the Northern Celestial Masters, bringing monasticism and influencing the diet of practitioners. Art produced in areas dominated by the Northern Celestial Masters also began to show Buddhist influence. When the theocracy collapsed, many Daoists fled to Louguan, which quickly became an important religious center. The Northern Celestial Masters survived as a distinct school at Louguan until the late 7th century CE, when they became integrated into the wider Daoist movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duke Yansheng</span> Chinese title of nobility

The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant of Confucius.

The history ofTaoism stretches throughout Chinese history. Originating in prehistoric China, it has exerted a powerful influence over Chinese culture throughout the ages. Taoism evolved in response to changing times, with its doctrine and associated practices being revised and refined. The acceptance of Taoism by the ruling class has waxed and waned, alternately enjoying periods of favor and rejection. Most recently, Taoism has emerged from a period of suppression and is undergoing a revival in China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Way of the Five Pecks of Rice</span> Chinese Taoist movement founded in 142 CE

The Way of the Five Pecks of Rice or the Way of the Celestial Master, commonly abbreviated to simply The Celestial Masters, was a Chinese Taoist movement founded by the first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling in 142 CE. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic state in the Hanzhong valley, north of Sichuan. In 215 CE, the state was incorporated by Cao Cao into what would later be the Kingdom of Wei, and the followers of the Celestial Master were dispersed all over China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Jin dynasty (266–420)</span>

The Jin dynasty was a major Chinese imperial dynasty. Following the devastation of the Three Kingdoms period, the Jin unified those territories and fostered a brief period of prosperity between 280 and 304 CE. However, during this period many social problems developed as well, the most pressing of which was the migration of non-Han tribes into Jin territory, to the point where they outnumbered the Han people in some regions.

Fangshi were Chinese technical specialists who flourished from the third century BCE to the fifth century CE. English translations of fangshi include alchemist, astrologer, diviner, exorcist, geomancer, doctor, magician, monk, mystic, necromancer, occultist, omenologist, physician, physiognomist, technician, technologist, thaumaturge, and wizard.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yan Hui</span> Chinese philosopher (c. 521–481 BC)

Yan Hui was a Chinese philosopher. He was the favorite disciple of Confucius and one of the most revered figures of Confucianism. He is venerated in Confucian temples as one of the Four Sages.

The Mouzi Lihuolun is a classic Chinese Buddhist text. It comprises a purportedly autobiographical preface by Master Mou, a late 2nd-century Confucian scholar-official who converted to Buddhism, and an imaginary dialogue of questions and answers about Buddhist practices.

The Xiaodao Lun is an anti-Daoist polemic written in 570 for the Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou (543–578) by the Buddhist courtier Zhen Luan. After holding several inconclusive debates in the court, Emperor Wu commissioned the Xiaodao Lun as one of two reports examining the suitability of sponsoring either Buddhism or Daoism as a state religion for the Northern Zhou dynasty, with a view towards unifying China. The Xiaodao Lun mocked Daoist practices, accused Daoists of plagiarizing Buddhist texts, and portrayed the religion as dangerous to social stability. Its advice was disregarded by the Emperor, who supported the preservation of Daoism, but his dynasty was ultimately short-lived. Zhen Luan's Xiaodao Lun is preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon and is consulted for its quotations of Daoist texts that have not been preserved until today.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kong Anguo</span>

Kong Anguo, courtesy name Ziguo (子國), Kong Anguo was a Chinese classicist, philosopher, and politician of the Western Han dynasty of ancient China. A descendant of Confucius, he wrote the Shangshu Kongshi Zhuan, a compilation and commentary of the "Old Text" Shangshu. His work was lost, but a debated fourth-century forgery was officially recognized as a Confucian classic for over a millennium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wufang Shangdi</span> Traditional Chinese fivefold deity

The Wǔfāng Shàngdì, or simply Wǔdì or Wǔshén are, in Chinese canonical texts and common Chinese religion, the fivefold manifestation of the supreme God of Heaven. This theology dates back at least to the Shang dynasty. Described as the "five changeable faces of Heaven", they represent Heaven's cosmic activity which shapes worlds as tán 壇, "altars", imitating its order which is visible in the starry vault, the north celestial pole and its spinning constellations. The Five Deities themselves represent these constellations. In accordance with the Three Powers they have a celestial, a terrestrial and a chthonic form. The Han Chinese identify themselves as the descendants of the Red and Yellow Deities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tiantishan Caves</span> Buddhist site in Wuwei, Gansu, China

The Tiantishan Caves are a series of rock cut Buddhist cave temples in the Liangzhou District of Wuwei, Gansu, northwest China. Excavated from the eastern cliffs of the Huangyang River (黃羊河) in the Qilian Mountains from the time of the Northern Liang, carving, decoration and subsequent modification of the caves continued through the Northern Wei and Tang to the Qing dynasty. The complex is identified with the Liangzhou Caves opened during the time of Juqu Mengxun "one hundred li to the south of Liangzhou", as recorded in the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms and Fayuan Zhulin. The name Tiantishan consists of three Chinese characters that literally translate as "Ladder to Heaven Mountain".

Lu Xiujing, known by the courtesy name Yuande (元德) and the posthumous name Jianji (簡寂), was a Taoist compiler and ritualist who lived under the Liu Song dynasty. His education was of Confucianist leaning. Nevertheless, he chose to study Taoism. Lu was devoted to his faith to the point of abandoning his family.

Forms of religion in China throughout history have included animism during the Xia dynasty, which evolved into the state religion of the Shang and Zhou. Alongside an ever-present undercurrent of Chinese folk religion, highly literary, systematised currents related to Taoism and Confucianism emerged during the Spring and Autumn period. Buddhism began to influence China during the Han dynasty, and Christianity and Islam appeared during the Tang.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Searching for the Ineffable: Classical Theism and Eastern Thought about God". Classical Theism: New Essays on the Metaphysics of God. Edited by Jonathan Fuqua and Robert C. Koons. Routledge. 2023-02-10. ISBN   978-1-000-83688-2. OCLC   1353836889.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  2. ↑ Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. p. 218. ISBN   978-1-4351-0121-0.
  3. ↑ Hendrischke (2000), p. 139.
  4. 1 2 Hendrischke (2000), p. 140.
  5. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 23–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (23 November 2009). Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols). BRILL. pp. 23–. ISBN   978-90-474-2929-6.
  6. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 39–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (23 November 2009). Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols). BRILL. pp. 39–. ISBN   978-90-474-2929-6.
  7. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 40–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (23 November 2009). Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols). BRILL. pp. 40–. ISBN   978-90-474-2929-6.
  8. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 41–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (23 November 2009). Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols). BRILL. pp. 41–. ISBN   978-90-474-2929-6.
  9. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 379–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (23 November 2009). Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols). BRILL. pp. 379–. ISBN   978-90-474-2929-6.
  10. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 380–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (23 November 2009). Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols). BRILL. pp. 380–. ISBN   978-90-474-2929-6.
  11. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 395–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  12. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 399–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  13. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 400–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  14. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 404–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  15. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 407–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  16. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 412–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  17. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 413–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  18. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 416–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  19. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 420–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  20. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 427–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  21. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 466–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  22. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 422–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  23. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 502–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  24. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 518–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  25. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 519–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  26. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 524–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  27. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 526–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  28. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 527–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  29. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 531–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  30. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 532–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  31. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 533–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  32. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 534–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  33. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 535–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  34. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 539–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  35. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 793–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  36. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 805–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  37. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 806–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  38. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 831–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  39. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 833–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  40. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 837–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  41. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1072–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  42. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1073–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  43. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 838–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  44. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1190–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  45. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1254–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  46. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1280–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  47. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1283–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  48. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1401–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  49. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1441–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  50. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 1316, 1428. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (23 November 2009). Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols). BRILL. pp. 1316, 1428. ISBN   978-90-474-2929-6.
  51. ↑ Bokenkamp (1997), p. 150.
  52. ↑ John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad). BRILL. pp. 370–. ISBN   978-90-04-17585-3.
  53. ↑ Modern Chinese Religion I (2 vol.set): Song-Liao-Jin-Yuan (960-1368 AD). BRILL. 8 December 2014. pp. 986–. ISBN   978-90-04-27164-7.
  54. ↑ Modern Chinese Religion I (2 vol.set): Song-Liao-Jin-Yuan (960-1368 AD). BRILL. 8 December 2014. pp. 1035–. ISBN   978-90-04-27164-7.
  55. ↑ Modern Chinese Religion I (2 vol.set): Song-Liao-Jin-Yuan (960-1368 AD). BRILL. 8 December 2014. pp. 61–. ISBN   978-90-04-27164-7.
  56. ↑ Modern Chinese Religion I (2 vol.set): Song-Liao-Jin-Yuan (960-1368 AD). BRILL. 8 December 2014. pp. 1158–. ISBN   978-90-04-27164-7.
  57. ↑ "Who’s going to be the 65th Taoist pope?," The China Post, December 15, 2008.
  58. ↑ Bokenkamp (1997), p. 83.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.